
Class 
Book 







OFFICIAL DONATION. 



STANDARD PROGRAM OF STUDIES 



FOR THE 



SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

OF NEW HAMPSHIRE 



DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 



1906 



Supplement to {Biennial Report 









Ira C. Evans Co., Printers, Concoro, N. H. 



D. OF D. 

FEB 191908 






PREFACE. 



The curricula and. courses here presented are intended 
to express the judgment of the Department of Public In- 
struction as to the standards which are sufficient to consti- 
tute a high school within the meaning of chapter 96, Ses- 
sion Laws of 1901. It is also expected that they will serve 
as suggestive to local authority and teachers, and that 
they will tend to effect a desirable unity both within the 
state and between the secondary institutions of New Hamp- 
shire and those of other states. 

In establishing these curricula and the standards of the 
various courses, the superintendent has had the formal 
advice of the educational council of New Hampshire and 
a committee of that body has done a major part of the 
actual work. This committee was composed of Principal 
George H. Libby of Manchester, Superintendent Joseph 
H. Blaisdell of Laconia, Principal Willis 0. Smith of 
Lancaster, and Principal Charles L. Wallace of Lisbon, in 
consultation with the state superintendent. 

The committee and the department have had the as- 
sistance of Superintendent A. H. Keyes of Dover, Dr. T. 
W. Harris of Keene, Superintendent M. C. Smart of Lit- 
tleton, Principal S. W. Robertson of Rochester, Principal 
J. W. Hobbs^of Portsmouth, Professor E. D. Sanderson 
of New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Me- 
chanic Arts. 

Although substantially all the work has been scrutinized 
and more, or less amended by the committee above referred 
to, and by the Superintendent, and all has been edited by 
the latter, acknowledgement is made of services for the 
several parts of the work as follows: 

English, Principal Hobbs ; Latin and Greek, Superinten- 
dent Keyes; Modern Languages, Superintendent Smart; 



4 PREFACE. 

History, Principal Robertson; Mathematics, Principal 
"Wallace; Physics and Chemistry, Principal Smith; Biol- 
ogy, Dr. Harris. The curriculum in Mechanic Arts with 
its courses entire is the work of Principal Smith, as well 
as the extensive and detailed work in Physics and Chem- 
istry. The curriculum in Agriculture was outlined by a 
committee of the "faculty of the State College, under the 
chairmanship of Professor E. D. Sanderson. The com- 
mercial curriculum was developed with great care by 
Principal Libby. 

In the whole work, the committee has been guided by 
the various similar documents published by the National 
Educational Association, and so far as possible has in- 
tended to make this work conform to the standards therein 
laid down by the chief professional body of America. 

General acknowledgment is also made to the Educa- 
tional Department of New York for constant guidance af- 
forded by its Syllabus for Secondary Schools. 

It is therefore declared that the standards herein es- 
tablished are recognized as authoritative for the State of 
New Hampshire, and they are commended to the atten- 
tion and consideration of the authorities of all approved 
secondary schools. 

HENRY C. MORRISON, 
Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

Concord, Sept. 4, 1906. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Introduction 7 

Chapter I. Curricula 13 

II. English 16 

III. Latin 26 

IV. Greek 29 

V. French 31 

VI. German 34 

VII. History 38 

VIII. Mathematics 51 

IX. Physics 55 

X. Chemistry 71 

XL Biology 81 

XII. Mechanic Arts 87 

XIII. Agriculture 103 

XIV. Commerce 109 



INTRODUCTION. 



Definitions. — In this work various technical terms are 
used in the meanings here given. 

Program. — The program, or program of studies of a 
school, is its whole or general plan of work, often indef- 
initely known as course of study. 

Curriculum. — A curriculum is a subdivision or phase of 
a program leading through some related series of courses 
and giving a characteristic discipline. For instance, Lat- 
in-Scientific, English, Classical courses, are more properly 
called curricula. 

Course. — A course is the work of one year or one semes- 
ter in a single subject. For instance, Curriculum I shows 
four courses in Latin, three in Greek, two in history, etc. 

Semester. — A half-year of school work. 

Secondary. — A secondary school is one teaching subjects 
or parts of subjects which are commonly recognized as 
falling between the scope of the elementary school and that 
of the college. 

The Elementary school embraces that part of school life 
lying between the kindergarten and the secondary school, 
being usually of eight grades. 

The Law of 1901 upon which the legal character of the 
approved high school or academy rests is here quoted. 

Chapter 96, Session Laws op 1901. 

as amended in 1903 and 1905. 

"Any town not maintaining a high school or school of 
corresponding grade shall pay .for the tuition of any 
child who with parents or guardian resides in said town 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

and who attends a high school or academy in the same 
or another town or city in this state, and the parent or 
guardian of such child shall notify the school board of the 
district in which he resides of the high school or academy 
which he has determined to attend; provided, however, that N 
no town shall be liable for tuition of a child in any school, 
in excess of the average cost per child of instruction for 
the regularly employed teachers of that school and the 
cost of text-books, supplies, and apparatus during the 
school year preceding, nor in any case, shall the town be 
liable for tuition for any child in excess of forty dollars 
per year. 

"If any town in which a high school or school of cor- 
responding grade is not maintained, neglects or refuses to 
pay tuition as provided in the preceding section, such 
town shall be liable therefor to the parent or guardian of 
the child furnished with such tuition, if the parent or 
guardian has paid the same, or to the town or city fur- 
nishing the same in an action of contract. 

"Eight thousand dollars shall be appropriated annually 
from the state treasury for the payment of tuition in high 
schools and academies, to be paid by the state treasurer 
in the month of December of each year to the treasurers 
of such towns as are entitled, and in such manner as is 
hereinafter provided, upon a sworn certificate of the 
superintendent of public instruction, of the sums due. 

"Towns whose rate of taxation for school purposes in 
any year is $3.50 or more on $1,000, and whose average rate 
of taxation for all purposes for five years next preceding 
is $16.50 or more on $1,000, shall receive a share of said 
appropriation as follows: 

" If the tax rate is from $16.50 to $17.49, one-tenth of 
the tuition paid. 

" If the tax rate is from $17.50 to $18.49, two-tenths of 
•the tuition paid. 

" If the tax rate is from $18.50 to $19.49, three-tenths of 
the tuition paid. 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

" If the tax rate is from $19.50 to $20.49, four-tenths of 
the tuition paid. 

" If the tax rate is from $20.50 to $21.49, five-tenths of 
the tuition paid. 

" If the tax rate is from $21.50 to $22.49, six-tenths of 
the tuition paid. 

" If the tax rate is from $22.50 to $23.49, seven-tenths of 
the tuition paid. 

" If the tax rate is from $23.50 to $24.49, eight-tenths of 
the tuition paid. 

" If the tax rate is from $24.50 to $25.49, nine-tenths of 
the tuition paid. 

" Over $25.49, the whole of such tuition. 

"If more than $8,000 should be needed in any year for 
the purposes of this act, the said $8,000 shall be distributed 
pro rata to the towns entitled to receive the same, in ac- 
cordance with the foregoing classification. 

"By the term "high school" or "academy " as used in 
this act, is understood a school having at least one course 
of not less than four years, properly equipped and teach- 
ing such subjects as are required for admission to college, 
technical school, and normal school, including reasonable 
instruction in the constitution of the United States and in 
the constitution of New Hampshire, such high school or 
academy to be approved by the state superintendent of 
public instruction as complying with the requirements of 
this section. And said superintendent is authorized to ap- 
prove a school maintaining any part of such course, for the 
part so maintained. " 

"Towns paying tuition of scholars in high schools or 
academies shall receive a proportionate share of the liter- 
ary fund for the attendance of such pupils. All acad- 
emies and private schools shall be furnished with copies of 
the school register, and shall make annual statistical re- 
port to the state superintendent. 

"Any school district may make contracts with any acad- 
emies or high schools or other literary institutions located 
in the state for furnishing instruction to its scholars, 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

and such school district may raise and appropriate money 
to carry into effect any contracts in relation thereto. 

"Every snch academy or high school or literary insti- 
tution shall then be deemed a high school maintained by 
snch district, if approved by the superintendent of public ' 
instruction in accordance with section 4 of this act." 

Conditions op Approval. 

Approval of high schools and academies under the 
law of 1901, by the superintendent of public instruction, 
is in substance a certification by that officer that the 
schools approved are of the standard specified by law. The 
law prescribes that they shall be of college-preparatory 
grade, that is, that they shall teach those subjects com- 
monly accepted as college admission requirements, and 
teach them with that degree of efficiency which will ade- 
quately prepare students for admission to college. 

Schools will not ordinarily be approved which fail to 
fulfill the following minimum requirements for approval : 

1. The teachers of the school must have received an edu- 
cation qualifying them to prepare others for higher institu- 
tions, that is to say, teachers in approved secondary schools 
must hold a bachelor's degree, or for the purposes of the 
school the full equivalent. This requirement will not be 
held to apply to teachers already in service in schools 
which have been already approved. 

2. A sufficient corps of teachers must be employed so 
that no teachers will be obliged to teach more than eight 
periods per day. This is regardless of the number of 
curricula approved. 

3. A regular program of studies calculated to fulfill the 
intention of the law must be adopted by the school board 
or the trustees of the institution and. after approval, such 
program may not be changed without express approval in 
writing of the state superintendent. A deviation from the 
adopted program will be considered by the superintendent 
as a change in the program. 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

4. The program of the approved school may not include 
subjects which belong essentially to the elementary school. 
Just so far as it does include such subjects, it tends to 
become a common school and not such a school as is con- 
templated by the law. 

5. Reasonable instruction in the constitution of the 
United States and in the constitution of New Hampshire 
is required by law. Such a course is required of every 
pupil. The superintendent will consider a year's work in 
the history and government of the United States and of 
New Hampshire to be reasonable instruction. Such a course 
may well be given in the senior year when pupils have 
gained a desirable maturity. It would then be a course 
regularly accepted by the colleges for admission. 

6. The law requires that such school shall be properly 
equipped. The school must possess : 

(1) An adequate supply of suitable text-books. 

(2) An adequate supply of reference books. This may 

be taken to mean at least : 

(a) One or more good unabridged English diction- 

aries. 

(b) One or more good unabridged lexicons for each 

foreign language offered. 

(c) Either a good encyclopedia, or a good advanced 

treatise for each course in history and science 
offered. 

(3) A sufficent supply of wall maps for each course 

in history and science offered. 

(4) A sufficient laboratory equipment for individual 

work by pupils in each of the sciences, physics, 
chemistry, and biology, if offered. 

7. The school must establish and maintain an ade- 
quate standard of admission requirements. All pupils 
entering from beyond the district limits, from without the 
jurisdiction of the governing body of the school, that is to 
say those commonly known as " tuition pupils," may be 
admitted only upon written examination in spelling, Eng- 



1 2 INTRODUCTION. 

lish composition, English grammar, history of the United 
States, arithmetic, geography, and physiology and hy- 
giene, the last with special reference to the effects of the 
use of narcotics and alcoholic stimulants. The governing 
body must establish and maintain some regular and ade- 
quate rules of admission for pupils coming from schools 
within its own jurisdiction, as for instance, pupils entering 
a high school from a grammar school. 

8. The governing body must establish and maintain 
some regular and adequate rules of promotion from class 
to class within the school. 

9. The governing body must maintain a proper state 
of discipline within the school. A school cannot fairly be 
said to be capable of preparing for college except it be 
conducted in good order. 



CHAPTER I. 

CURRICULA. 

An approved high school or academy may have a pro- 
gram made up of one or more of the curricula outlined be- 
low, or it may combine or modify the same to suit its own 
needs subject to the approval of the state superintendent. 
It may choose one or more curricula not covered in the list 
here given, provided the courses thereof are of recognized 
secondary grade, and provided the curricula selected can be 
so adjusted as to be of equivalent educational value with 
those here given. 

A small school properly equipped and duly approved, 
working on a program of but one curriculum is considered 
by the department to be equal in standard to the large 
school working on a program of many curricula. 

History may be either ancient, mediaeval and modern, 
English, United States, or any of them. 

Mathematics review may be either a review of algebra 
and geometry, or these with the addition of arithmetic re- 
view, or arithmetic alone, review and advanced. It is 
recommended that the needs of each class determine the 
decision. 

Advanced mathematics may be any two of the following 
group according to the needs of the class : 

Advanced arithmetic, advanced algebra, solid geometry, 
trigonometry and surveying. 

It is assumed that for administrative purposes, algebra, 
geometry, advanced and review mathematics, English, his- 
tory, modern language in different curricula, will usually 
be combined in the same classes. 



14 



SECONDAEY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 



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CHAPTER II. 

ENGLISH. 

English teaching in the secondary school contemplates 
several specific aims, chief among which are cultivation in 
the pupil of literary taste, and the competency of the pu- 
pil in English composition. Each of the four years should 
therefore include a five period course in English language 
and literature. For convenience of administration, this 
document will assume that on the average about three 
periods per week will usually be devoted to literature 
and two periods to composition or language study, but it is 
understood that the teacher will find it convenient, from 
time to time, to vary largely the relative proportion of time 
devoted to the two sides of the subject. 

In each year lists of books are suggested, but it must 
be understood that these lists will need to be varied from 
time to time, and therefore must be taken as illustrative 
rather than prescriptive. 

First Course. 

literature. 

It is recommended that the work of this year both in 
literature and in composition be centered in the Narrative. 

Classroom readings with study, six books for the year as 
a minimum. 

Scott's Ivanhoe. 

Dickens' Tale of Two Cities. 

Byron's Prisoner of Chillon and Mazeppa. 

Palmer's Translation of the Odyssey. 

Coleridge's Ancient Mariner. 



PROGRAM OP STUDIES. 17 

Supplementary outside readings, six books for the year 
as a minimum. Select at least one from each group. 
I. Scott's Lady of the Lake, 

Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish, 
Scott's Kenilworth. 
II. Hawthorne's Twice Told Tales, 

Macauley's Lays of Ancient Rome, 
Irving 's Tales of a Traveler. 

III. Dana's Two Years Before the Mast. 
Irving 's Sketch Book, 

Cooper's Deerslayer or Pilot. 

IV. Cooper's Last of the Mohicans, 
Kipling's Jungle Books, 1 and 2, 
Scott's The Talisman. 

V. Aldrich's Bad Boy, 

Warner's Being a Boy, 
Burrough's Sharp Eyes. 
VI. Dodge's Hans Brinker, 
Whittier's Snow Bound, 
Hale 's A Man Without a Country. 

The teacher should assist the pupil in the selection of 
books and should require evidence, by reports or by class 
discussion, on books which are read outside of school. 

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 

It is recommended that the backbone of this side of the 
work of this year and the next be a suitable formal text- 
book on rhetoric and composition. 

Themes. 

Students should have constant exercises in the writing 
of short themes. Such themes should be revised and cor- 
rected by the teacher, and often in the class by class 
criticism. An entire theme should occasionally be placed 
upon the board, criticised, and rewritten by the class. Crit- 
icism of themes by the teacher should be constructive and 

2 



18 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

positive, while, of course, it must constantly be concerned 
with questions of grammar, spelling, punctuation, capital- 
ization, etc. 
Attention is particularly called to these three points. 

(1) Themes should not be so many that the teacher 
cannot thoroughly revise them. One short theme a month 
thoroughly revised and corrected by teacher and pupil 
is far better than a multitude which cannot be properly 
overlooked without unduly burdening the teacher, and 
staling the class. 

(2) Papers in other subjects, especially the sciences 
and foreign languages, should frequently be used as themes 
and treated as such. 

(3) Teachers of other subjects must constantly insist 
on the use of correct idiomatic English in papers taken up 
by them; and upon the use of oral recitations as an unex- 
celled opportunity for inculcating the use of good English. 

The following work is suggested as the basis of theme 
writing. The atmosphere of the year in composition as 
well as in literature should be in the main Narration. 

I. Letter writing. 

II. Short themes, both oral and written, based on the 
experience of the pupil, as well as on the literature of the 
term. 

III. Short themes, imaginative in character, in the form 
of the short story. 

Emphasis should be laid, first, last, and all the time, 
upon reading aloud, with clearness and force; and upon 
the use of good English in oral recitation. Interest in 
theme writing and in composition and rhetoric may be 
aroused by a class paper edited by the class and finally 
read aloud by the members of the class on the last Friday 
of the month. 

GENERAL RESULTS OF THE YEAR'S WORK. 

At the end of the first year in the secondary school, 
pupils should be on familar terms with the correct use of 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 19 

capitals, punctuation and grammar, and the spelling of the 
mother tongue. Thereafter, ordinary errors in these mat- 
ters should be held to be inexcusable. Pupils should have 
read, discussed and written upon some of the world's best 
narratives, especially English and American romances, and 
other fiction. They should thoroughly understand the 
elements of the paragraph and the unity of the short 
theme. 

Second Course. 

literature. 

It is recommended that the work of this year, both in 
literature and in composition, be centered largely in De- 
scription. 

Classroom reading ivith study, six books for the year as 
a minimum. 

Scott's Marmion, 
Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, 
Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, 
Shakespeare 's Merchant of Venice, 
Eliot's Silas Marner, 
Browning's Cavalier Tunes, 

The Lost Leader, 

How They Brought the Good News from 
Ghent to Aix, 

Evelyn Hope, 

Home Thoughts from Abroad, 

Home Thoughts from the Sea, 

Incident of the French Camp, 

The Boy and the Angel, 

One "Word More, 

Herve Riel, 

Pheidippides. ■ 

Much interest may be aroused by the occasional reading 
by the teacher of lyrics from Palgrave's Golden Treasury, 
Series II and III, from Gray, Cooper, Goldsmith and 
Burns. 



20 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Supplementary outside readings, six books for the year 
as a minimum. Select at least one from each of the fol- 
lowing groups. 

I. Gray's Elegy, 

Goldsmith's Deserted Village and Traveler, 
Warner's Backlog Studies. 
II. Stevenson's Kidnapped, 
Muloch's John Halifax, 
Hughes' Tom Brown at Oxford. 

III. Stockton's Rudder Grange, 
Mark Twain's Tom Sawyer, 
Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn. 

IV. Blackmore's Lorna Doone, 
Scott's Guy Mannering, 
Dickens' David Copperfield. 

V. Roosevelt and Lodge : Hero Tales from American 
History, 
Roosevelt's Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail, 
London's The Call of the Wild. 
VI. Eggleston's The Hoosier Schoolmaster. 
Gaskell's Cranford, 
Dickens' Nicholas Nickleby. 

The teacher should assist the pupil in the selection of 
books and should require evidence, by reports or by class 
discussion, on books which are read outside of school. 

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 

It is recommended that the backbone of this side of the 
work in this year be a continuation of the work of the 
preceding year in the study of a suitable formal text-book 
on rhetoric and composition. The same text may be used 
as in the preceding year or another text supplementary to 
the first may be selected. 

Themes. 

The atmosphere of the subject matter of themes as 
well as of literature should be in the main Description. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 21 

The teacher should read carefully all that is laid down 
under this general head in the first course. 

GENERAL RESULTS OP THE SECOND COURSE. 

The pupil should at the end of the second year possess 
an appreciation of the main characteristics of the more 
important literary types of the descriptive mood and the 
drama. He should understand the principles of the para- 
graph and the functions of unity, coherence and propor- 
tion. No special attention ought to be given to instruc- 
tion in common errors in punctuation, spelling, etc. The 
pupil should be held rigorously responsible for these mat- 
ters without instruction. 

Third Course. 

literature. 

The general purpose of teaching literature in the third 
year is to secure clearness of thought from reading fine 
standards of exposition, essays, lyrics, the drama and 
argumentation ; further, the study of literature should be- 
gin to develop the power of discrimination in the compari- 
son of literary values in a simple way and to stimulate a 
finer feeling for literature. 

Classroom reading with study, six books for the year as 
a minimum. 

I. Addison's DeCoverly Papers, 
II. Tennyson's Idylls, Lancelot and Elaine, Gareth 
and Lynette, Passing of Arthur. 

III. Arnold's Sohrab and Rustum. 

IV. Ruskin's Sesame and Lilies. 

V. Hawthorne's House of the Seven Gables. 
VI. ' Macaulay's Lord Clive. 

Supplementary outside readings, at least six books to be 
read during the year. Choose at least one from each group. 



22 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

I. DeQuincey's Joan of Arc, and the English Mail 
Coach, 

Kingsley's Romau and Teuton, 

Webster's First Bunker Hill Oration. 
II. Wallace's Ben Hur, 

Kingsley's Hypatia, 

Eber's Uarda. 

III. Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield, 
Thackeray's Henry Esmond, 
Irving 's Legend of the Alhambra. 

IV. Lamb's Essays of Elia, 

Holmes' Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, 
Emerson's Conduct of Life. 
V. Shakespeare 's Henry V, 
Shakespeare's Richard III. 
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, 
Pope 's Rape of the Lock. 
VI. Irving 's Life of Goldsmith, 

Roosevelt's Winning of the West, 
Craddock's Prophet of the Great Smoky Moun- 
tains. 

The teacher should assist the pupil in the selection of 
books and should require evidence, by reports or by class 
discussion, on books which are read outside of school. 

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 

The basis of this side of the work for this year should 
be a suitable text in somewhat advanced English grammar. 

Themes. 

The effort of this year should be centered upon Exposi- 
tion and Argumentation, just as the work of the preced- 
ing years has centered upon narration and description. 
The teacher will probably find it useful to utilize the 
natural interest in debate for this purpose. 

One theme of some length should be written occasion- 



PROGRAM OP STUDIES. 23 

ally, carefully developed from an outline, and requiring 
some research. 

The attention of the teacher is particularly called to re- 
marks under this heading in the first course. 

GENERAL RESULTS OP THE THIRD COURSE. 

The third year introduces the pupil to some of the 
world's greatest essays, to general expositional writing, to 
a clear and definite expression of one 's ideas. 

It must be understood that common errors have been 
eliminated, and in general, no pupil should be admitted 
to the work of this year who is not competent in this di- 
rection. If the secondary school will be a kindergarten it 
will assuredly have to be. Therefore it should finally de- 
cline to be a kindergarten. 

Finally the pupil should begin to appreciate the power 
of carefully organized writing and the power of words 
which are carefully and effectively chosen. 

Fourth Course. 

The general purpose of this year is a review of the whole 
of English and American literatures, of great movements in 
literature, of periods of thought, like the Elizabethan and 
Queen Anne periods. This review may be founded upon 
such manuals and epitomes as Symond's or Halleck's His- 
tory of English Literature, Matthew's or Newcomer's Amer- 
ican Literature, and such handbooks as George's Chaucer 
to Arnold or Scudder's Masterpieces of American Litera- 
ture, with readings from collections of verse like Pal- 
grave's Golden Treasury. 

Classroom reading with study, six books as a minimum. 

I. Milton's Minor Poems, L 'Allegro, Comus, Lyc- 

idas, II Penseroso. 

II. Shakespeare's Macbeth. 

III. Burke's Conciliation or Essay on Addison. 

IV. Milton's Paradise Lost. 

V. Emerson's Essays, selected. 



24 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

VI. Macaulay's Life of Johnson or Carlyle's Burns. 

In addition to the above : 

Washington's Farewell Address and Lincoln's Gettys- 
burg Address should be thoroughly read by every pupil 
and so far as possible committed. 

This may be done, if desired, in connection with senior 
course in American history. 

Supplementary readings, six books for the year as a 
minimum. Select at least one from each of the following 
groups. 

I. Shakespeare's Hamlet, 

Shakespeare's As You Like It, 
Eliot's Romola. 

II. Warner's My Summer in a Garden, 
Thoreau's Walden, 
Hawthorne's The Marble Faun. 

III. Rope's Napoleon, 
Shurz's Abraham Lincoln, 

Riis' How the Other Half Lives. 

IV. Thackeray's The Newcomes, 
Eber's An Egyptian Princess, 
Scott's Quentin Durward. 

V. Carlyle's Heroes and Hero Worship, 

Bacon's Essays. 
VI. Spenser's Faerie Queen, 

Chaucer's Prologue and Knight's Tale. 

Reports of the outside reading should be full and com- 
plete with some evidence of discrimination in the selection 
of books. 

The teacher may, with profit, read to the class selections 
from Anglo-Saxon, such as Beowulf, and so down through 
the great epochs of English and American literature to the 
present. 

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 

The general work of the year, which should not require 
more than one period per week, may properly be themes 
reviewing the principles of four years ' work. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 25 

An important part of the work may well be a period, 
say once in two weeks, when one or more pupils speak be- 
fore the class on some subject which each has chosen and 
studied. Finally a composition should be written, for 
which the student should have perfect freedom in his 
choice of literary form, and in which he ought to express 
himself correctly and forcibly in clear, idiomatic English. 
This production should be a fair test of his ability to 
write, and might be written on the last Friday of each 
term of the fourth vear. 



CHAPTER III. 

LATIN. 

First Course. 

Beginner's Book and Easy Reading. 

The translation of English into Latin should be carried 
on from the beginning. 

Sight translation should be encouraged from the first, 
and, if possible, the formation of the lexicon habit avoided. 

Easy reading from Fabuke Faciles, Viri Roma?, Nepos, 
or similar work, should be commenced as early as possible 
and carried on parallel with study of the beginner's book. 

Results. 

Complete mastery of the forms of the beginner's book. 

Vocabulary of 700 to 800 words, each at tongue's end. 

Accurate pronunciation by Roman method. 

Familiarity with a few fundamental principles of 
syntax. 

Intelligent reading aloud of easy Latin. 

Ability to translate the simplest Latin prose into English 
without the aid of lexicon, some of the easier stories in 
gradatim for instance. 

Facility in translating simple English sentences into 
Latin. 

Second Course. 

Ca?sar 's Commentaries : Gallic War. I to IV ; and as much 
of V to VIII at sight as possible. 

Latin prose composition based on Latin read, continuous 
narrative. 

Sight reading daily, usually of the text in the hands 
of pupils. Aim to develop the power of reading Latin 
in the senior year as the senior reads French. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 27 

Oral prose composition, daily, based on review transla- 
tion. 

Historical geography of the work being studied. 

Study of Caesar's life and position at Rome, and review 
of the Roman history of the period. 

Results. 

Mastery of the syntax of Ca?sar, especially the indirect 
discourse and use of the subjunctive. 

Ability to read without lexicon, after brief preparation, 
the ordinary Latin of Caesar. 

Ability to read aloud intelligently, without translation, 
any review Latin. 

Ability to turn into Latin easy English prose based on 
Caesar. 

All translations to be into correct idiomatic English. 

Third and Fourth Years. 

No distinction is made between these years as such, 
since no preference is given to the order in which Cicero, 
Ovid and Virgil should be read. 

Cicero's Orations. 

The four Catilian orations and three others. The ora- 
tion on the Manilian Law will count as two, 

Latin prose composition based on Latin read, continuous 
narrative. 

Sight reading as in second year. 

Oral prose composition, daily, based on review. 

Review and study of Roman history of the period cov- 
ered by the orations. 

Sallust's De Conjuratione Catilinae might very well be 
read at sight. 

Study of exposition and argumentation as used by Cic- 
ero, correlated with regular English work of this year. 

Every translation should be 'into correct idiomatic Eng- 
lish. 

Ovid's Metamorphoses. 

Selections aggregating at least 1,500 lines. 

Latin prose composition based on grammatical review. 



28 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Sight reading frequently. It is recommended that some 
other than the text under treatment be used. Additional 
Cicero might be read, or Csesar, or Sallust, or other authors 
of the same period. 

Principles of Latin poetry and metrical rendering of 
text read. 

Study of mythology treated by the poet and some ac- 
count of Ovid and his place in the Augustan Age. 

Every translation should be into correct idiomatic Eng- 
lish. 

Virgil's Aeneid. 

Books I to VI or not less than 4.500 lines. 

Latin prose composition based on either Cicero, Caesar, 
or grammatical review. 

Daily sight reading of the text. It ought to be possible, 
if Virgil is the last Latin to be read, to read a large part of 
Books VII to XII at sight. 

Study of prosody and metrical rendering of the text 
read. 

The historical setting of the poem, and some study of the 
heroic age of which it treats. 

Every translation to be into correct idiomatic English. 

IN GENERAL. 

The study of Latin is of little use if it does not produce 
certain powers in the student. Such powers are hard to 
measure in themselves, but reasonable assurance can be felt 
that the pupil possesses them, provided he shows at the 
end of his school career the following abilities : 

1. To read the Latin of the authors studied, both those 
portions which have been read and those which have not, 
without dependence upon a lexicon. 

2. To turn Latin into idiomatic English. 

3. To turn English into idiomatic Latin. 

4. To read any Latin of the authors studied aloud in 
the original in such wise that his expression will reveal 
a true sense of the meaning of that which he reads. 



CHAPTER IV. 

GREEK. 

First Course. 
(See also Latin.) 

The Beginner's Book, Easy Reading, and the Anabasis 
begun. 

Greek prose composition last half of spring term. 

Sight translation should be begun as early as possible 
and encouraged, and contraction of the lexicon habit 
avoided. 

Easy reading should be begun as soon as possible and 
carried on parallel with the beginner's book. In the lat- 
ter half of the spring term, the Anabasis should be com- 
menced with daily lessons, and prose composition, con- 
tinuous narrative, based on the Anabasis, carried on paral- 
lel with the same. 

Results. 

Substantial attainment in the command of forms. 

Vocabulary of the beginner's book mastered and at the 
tongue's end. 

Accurate pronunciation and thorough understanding of 
the principles of accent. 

Thorough understanding of the fundamental principles 
of syntax. 

Ability to translate simplest Greek without the aid of a 
lexicon. 

Facility in rendering short and simple English sen- 
tences into Greek. 

Second Course. 

The Anabasis, four books, complete. 
Greek prose composition based on the Anabasis, continu- 
ous narrative. 



30 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Sight translation daily, usually from the text. If pos- 
sible, books V to VII should be read in this way. or, towards 
the end of the year, selections from the Hellenica. See sec- 
ond-year Latin. 

Oral prose composition, daily, based on review transla- 
tion. 

Study of syntax, grammar, and forms. 

Study of historical geography, and review of the phase 
of Greek history treated in the Anabasis. 

Results. 

Mastery of the forms of Attic Greek. 

Mastery of the syntax used by Xenophon. 

Ability to read without aid of lexicon, after brief prep- 
aration, the ordinary Greek of Xenophon. 

Ability to read aloud intelligently any review Greek 
without translation. 

Ability to turn into Greek, without aid of reference 
books, easy English prose based on Xenophon. 

Third Course. 

Homer's Iliad, Books I to III, or 1,500 lines of the Ho- 
meric poems. 

Greek prose composition based on grammatical study. 

Daily sight reading of the text. It ought to be possible 
to read at sight a considerable portion of either the Iliad 
or the Odyssey beyond the minimum requirement. 

Study of prosody and metrical rendering of the poem. 
The peculiarities of Homeric Greek, in form, syntax and 
prosody. 

The historical setting of the poem and some study of 
the heroic age which it treats. 

General Results. 

See Latin, Chapter III, to which attention is particularly 
called. 



CHAPTER V. 

FRENCH. 

First Course. 

During the first year the work should comprise: (1) care- 
ful drill in pronunciation ; ( 2 ) the rudiments of gram- 
mar, including the inflection of the regular and the more 
common irregular verbs, the plural of nouns, the inflec- 
tion of adjectives, participles, and pronouns ; the use of 
personal pronouns, common adverbs, prepositions, and con- 
junctions ; the order of words in the sentence, and ele- 
mentary rules of syntax; (3) abundant easy exercises de- 
signed not only to fix in the memory the forms and prin- 
ciples of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the 
reproduction of natural forms of expression ; (4) the read- 
ing from 125 to 200 duodecimo pages of graduated texts, 
with constant practice in translating into French easy 
variations of the sentences read (the teacher giving the 
English), and in reproducing from memory sentences pre- 
viously read; (5) writing French from dictation. 

Second Course. 

During the second year the work should comprise: (1) 
the reading of from 300 to 500 pages of easy modern prose 
in the form of stories, plays, or historical or biographical 
sketches; (2) constant practice, as in the previous year, in 
translating into French easy variations upon the texts 
read; (3) frequent abstracts, sometimes oral, and some- 
times written, of portions of the text already read; (4) 
writing French from dictation; (5) continued drill upon 
the rudiments of grammar, with constant application in 
the construction of sentences; (6) mastery of the forms 



32 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

and use of pronouns, pronominal adjectives, of all but the 
rare irregular verb forms, and of the simpler uses of the 
conditional and subjunctive. 

Material suitable for the first two courses may be se- 
lected from the following list: 

Bruno, Le Tour de la France. 
Dauclet, Trois Contes Choisis. 
Dumas, Excursions sur les bords du Rhin, La Tulipe 

Noire. 
Erckmann-Chatrian, Madame Therese, Le Conscrit. 
Foncin, Le pays de France. 
Halevy, L'Abbe Constantin. 
Labiche et Martin, La poudre aux yeux, Le voyage de 

M. Perrichon. 
Legouve et Labiche, La Cigale ehez les fourmis. 
Meilhac et Halevy, L'ete de la St. Martin. 
Malot, Sans famille. 
Merimee, Colomba. 
Sand, La Mare au diable 
Saintine, Picciola. 
Voltaire, Zadig. 

Results. 

At the end of the first two courses, the pupil should be 
able to pronounce French accurately, to read, at sight easy 
French prose, to put into French simple English sentences 
taken from the language of every day life, or based upon 
a portion of the French text read, and to answer questions 
on the rudiments of the grammar as defined above. 

Third Course. 

This course should comprise the reading of from 500 to 
700 pages of French of ordinary difficulty, a portion to be 
in the dramatic form ; constant practice in giving French 
paraphrases, abstracts or reproductions from memory or 



PROGRAM OP STUDIES. S3 

selected portions of the matter read; the study of a gram- 
mar of moderate completeness ; writing from dictation. 
The following are suitable texts: 

About, La mere de la Marquise, Le roi de Montagnes. 

Augier et Sandeau, Le gendre de M. Poirier. 

Beranger, Selected poems. 

Coppee, Selected poems. 

Daudet, Le Petit Chose, La Belle Nivernaise. 

Dumas, Les trois mousquetaires, Monte Christo. 

Hugo, La Chute. 

Labiche, La Cagnotte. 

La Fontaine, Fables. 

Lamartine, Jeanne D'Are, Scenes de la Revolution. 

Francaise. 
Loti, Pecheur d'Islande, Ramuntcho. 
Moliere, LAvare, Le bourgeois gentilhomme. 
Racine, Athalie, Esther. 
Sand, La petite Fadette. 
Sarcey, Le Siege de Paris. 
Souvestre, Le Serf, Le Mari de Mme. de Solange. 

Results. 

At the end of the third course the pupil should be able 
to read at sight ordinary French prose or simple poetry, 
to translate into French a connected passage of English 
based on the text read, and to answer questions involving 
a more thorough knowledge of syntax than is expected in 
the elementary course. 



CHAPTER VI. 

GERMAN. 

First Course. 

During the first year the work should comprise : 

1. Careful drill upon pronunciation. 

2. The memorizing and frequent repetition of easy 
colloquial sentences. 

3. Drill upon the rudiments of grammar, that is, upon 
the inflection of articles, of such nouns as belong 
to the language of everyday life, of adjectives, pronouns, 
weak verbs; also upon the use of the more common prepo- 
sitions, the simpler uses of the modal auxiliaries, and the 
elementary rules of syntax and word order. 

4. Abundant easy exercises designed not only to fix 
in mind the forms and principles of grammar, but also to 
cultivate readiness in the reproduction of natural forms 
of expression. 

5. The reading of from 75 to 100 pages of graduated 
texts from a reader, with constant practice in translating 
into German easy variations upon sentences selected from 
the reading lesson (the teacher giving the English), and 
in the reproduction from memory of sentences previously 
read. 

6. Writing German from dictation. 

Second Course. 

During the second year the work should comprise : 

1. The reading of from 150 to 200 pages of literature 
in the form of easy stories and plays. 

2. Accompanying practice, as before, in the translation 
into German of easy variations upon the matter read, and 
also in the off-hand reproduction, sometimes orally and 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 35 

sometimes in writing, of the substance of short and easy 
selected passages. 

3. Continued drill upon the rudiments of the grammar, 
directed to the ends of enabling the pupil, first, to use 
his knowledge with facility in the formation of sentences, 
and, secondly, to state his knowledge correctly in the tech- 
nical language of grammar. 

Suitable material for reading in the first two courses 
may be selected from the following : 

Anderson, Marchen, Bilderbuch ohne Bilder. 

Arnold, Ein Eegentag auf dem Lande,. Fritz auf 

Ferien. 
Auerbach, Biigitta. 
Benedix, Der Prozess, Der Weiberfeind, Nein, Einer 

Muss heiraten. 
Elz, Er ist nicht eifersiichtig. 
Hauff, Das Kalte Herz, Tales. 

Heyse, Anfang und Ende, Niels mit der offenen Hand. 
Hillern, Hoher als die Kirche. 
Jensen, Die braune Erica. 
Leander, Traumereien. 
Lohmeyer, Der Geissbub von Engleberg. 
Schiller, Der Neffe als Onkel. 
Seidel, Marchen, Leberecht Hiinchen. 
Spyri, Moni der Geissbub. 
Stern, Geschichten vom Rhein. 
Stokl, Unter dem Christbaum. 
Storm, Immensee, Geschichten aus der Tonne, Pole 

Poppenspaler. 
Yolkmann, Kleine Geschichten. 
"Wichert, An der Majorsecke. 
"Wildenbruck, Das edle Blut. 
Zschokke, Der zerbrochene Krug, Das Wirtshaus zu 

Cransac, Das Abenteuer der Neujahrsnacht. 

Results. 

At the end of the first two courses in German, the pupil 
should be able to read at sight, and to translate, if called 



36 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

upon, by way of proving his ability, to read a passage of 
very easy dialogue or narrative prose, help being given 
upon unusual words and constructions ; to put into German 
short English sentences taken from the language of every- 
day life or based upon the text given for translation, and 
to answer questions upon the rudiments of grammar, as 
denned above. 

Third Course. 

The work should comprise, in addition to the first two 
courses, the reading of about 400 to 450 pages of moderately 
difficult prose and poetry, with constant practice in giving 
sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, paraphrases, 
abstracts, or reproductions from memory of selected por- 
tions of the matter read; also grammatical drill upon the 
less usual strong verbs, the use of article, cases, auxiliaries 
of all kinds, tenses and modes (with special reference to 
the infinitive and subjunctive) and likewise upon word 
order and word formation. Continue writing from dicta- 
tion. 

Material for the third course may be selected from the 
following list: 

Baumbach, Die Nonna, Der Schwiegersohn, Das Ha- 

bichtsfraulein. 
Ebner-Eschenbach, Die Freiherren von Gemperlein. 
Freytag, Die Journalisten, Karl der Grosse, Aus den 

Kreuzzugen. 
Freytag, Aus dem Staat Friedrichs des Grossen. 
Fouque, Undine. 

Goethe, Hermann und Dorthea, Das Marchen. 
Heine, Poems, Reisebilder. 

Heyse, L 'Arrabbiata, Das Madchen von Treppi. 
Hoffmann, Historische Erzahlungen. 
Keller, Kleider Machen Leute. 
Lessing, Minna von Barnhelm. 
Meyer, Gustave Adolfs Page. 
Moser, Der Bibliothekar. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 37 

Riehl, Burg Neideck, Der Fluch der Schonheit, Der 
Stumme Ratsherr, Das Spielmannskind. 

Rosseger, Waldheimat. 

Schiller, Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Das Lied von der 
Glocke, Balladen. 

Scheffel, Der Trompeter von Sakkingen. 

Seiden, Herr Omnia. 

Uhland, Poems. 

Results. 

At the end of the third course, the pupil should be able 
to read at sight German prose of ordinary difficulty, 
whether recent or classical; to put into German a con- 
nected passage of simple English, paraphrased from a 
gixen text in German; to answer any grammatical ques- 
tions relating to usual forms and essential principles of 
the language, including syntax and word formation, and 
to translate and explain (so far as explanation may be 
necessary) a passage of classical literature taken from 
some text previously studied. 



CHAPTER VII. 

HISTORY.* 

Too much stress cannot be placed upon the study of 
history as a factor in secondary school work. By this is 
meant, not the study of history with a single text-book, 
whose contents are to be learned as memory exercises, 
but the study which makes of history an almost unequaled 
means for the development of the reasoning powers and 
the ability to judge aright, and the fitting of the student 
for the demands of intelligent citizenship. 

The objects of history teaching are : 

To give at least an elementary idea of the steps in the de- 
velopment of the intellectual and material resources of 
the world. 

To gain an appreciation of the law of cause and effect, 
as manifested in the current of human affairs. 

To give some realization how the increasing needs of 
civilized man have been met by new discoveries of natural 
resources and by new inventions of man. 

To impress upon the student the relations of the indi- 
vidual to the state, of the state to the individual. 

To aid in the development of general culture and in the 
broadening of one 's life 's horizon. 

To develop some taste for research, and the ability to 
extract truth from storehouses of mingled fact and fancy. 

Ancient History, 
i. the oriental nations. 

1. Introduction: Scope and Course of Ancient History. 

2. Egypt, 5000-525 B. C. 

*The syllabi under this chapter are quoted direct from "A History Syllabus 
for Secondary Schools," prepared by a committee of the New England 
History Teachers' Association, D. C Heath & Co., 1904, which see. The 
syllabi are designed to indicate the scope and proportion of instruction in an 
approved school. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 39 

3. The Tigris-Euphrates Valley, 5000, or earlier, to 538 

B. C. 

4. Syria (I) The Phoenicians. 

5. Syria (II) The Hebrews. 

6. Media and Persia, 850 ( ?)-514 B. C. 

7. Summary and Review of the Oriental Nations. 

II. ANCIENT HELLAS: EARLY DEVELOPMENT, 

2000 (?) -750 b. c. 

8. The Land and the Aegean Basin. 

9. The People : Migration and Expansion. 

10. The Epic, or " Homeric," Age 1000-700 B. C. (ap- 

proximately) . 

11. "Greek Reconstruction of Early History." 

12. The States, and the Beginnings of Leagues. 

III. STATE AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN GREECE TO THE 
FOREIGN WARS, 750-500 B. C. 

13. Age of Colonial Expansion. 

14. Order of Political Evolution. 

15. Growth of Sparta : A Military Aristocracy. 

16. Growth of Athens : Progress toward Democracy. 

17. Intellectual Progress of Hellas to 500 B. C. 

18. Bonds of Union. 

IV. FOREIGN WARS OF THE GREEKS: INDEPENDENCE, 

560-479 b. c. 

19. Lydian and Persian Conquests in Asia Minor. 

20. Scythian Expedition and Ionic Revolt. 

21. The Persian Invasion, 492-479 B. C. 

22. "The Punic Invasion," 485-480 B. C. : The Cartha- 

ginians in Sicily. 

V. THE PRE-EMINENCE OF ATHENS, 479-431 B. C. 

23. The Delian League and the Athenian Empire, 477-461 

B. C. 



40 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

24. The Periclean Age and the Athenian Democracy, 461- 

431 B. C. 

25. Intellectual Life ; The Athenian Genius. 

VI. A CENTURY OP STRIPE, 461-362 B. C. 

26. The Athenian Attempt at Land Empire, 461- 

445 B. C. 

27. The Peloponnesian War, 431-404 B. C. 

28. The New Learning. 

29. The Hegemony of Sparta, 404-371 B. C. 

30. The Attempted Hegemony of Thebes, 371-362 B. C. 

31. The Western Greeks, 410-300 B. C. (approximately). 

32. Literature and Art, 400-350 B. C. 

33. The Rise of Macedon, 359-336 B. C. 

VII. THE EMPIRE OP ALEXANDER, 336-146 B. C. 

v 

34. The Career of Alexander, 336-323 B. C. 

35. The Hellenistic Period, 323-146 B. C. 

36. Greece, to Roman Intervention; Attempts at Federal 

Government, 280-200 B. C. 

VIII. EARLY ROME TO ROMAN SUPREMACY IN ITALY, 

753(?)-264 b. c. 

37. The Land and the People. 

38. Early Rome : Sources of Our Knowledge. 

39. Regal Rome : Organization. 

40. The Early Republic: The Struggle between the 

Classes; Triumph of the Plebeians, 509(?)- 
286 B. C. 

41. The Early Republic: The Establishment of Rome's 

Supremacy in Latium, 509 ( ?)-338 B. C. 

42. The Conquest and Organization of Italy, 338- 

264 B. C. 

IX. ROME SUPREME IN THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN, 

264-133 b. c. 

43.- The Struggle with Carthage for Sicily: The First 
Punic War, 264-241 B. C. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 41 

44. The extension of Italy to its Natural Boundaries; 

Wars in Africa and Spain, 241-218 B. C. 

45. The Struggle between Kome and Carthage for the 

Supremacy in the West : The Second and Third Pu- 
nic Wars, 218-133 B. C. 

46. Rome Becomes Supreme in the Eastern Mediterra- 

nean, 216-133 B. C. 

X. THE ANCIENT WORLD UNDER ROMAN RULE' TO 31 B. C. 

47. The Organization of Rome's Foreign Conquests. 

48. The Effects of Conquests and the Provincial System 

upon Society, Politics and Manners. 

49. The Revolutionary Attempts at Reform under the 

Gracchi, 133-121 B. C. 

50. " The Rule of the Restoration," 121-88 B. C. 

51. The Struggle between Marius and Sulla; Re-estab- 

lishment of Senatorial Rule, 88-79 B. C. 

52. Pompey and Cassar, 79-49 B. C. 

53. The Rule of Caesar, 48-44 B. C. 

54. The Struggle for the Succession, 44-31 B. C. 

55. Roman Culture in the " Ciceronian Age." 

XI. THE ANCIENT WORLD UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 
31 B. C. TO 375 A. D. 

56. The Establishment of the Empire, 31 B. C. to 14 

A. D. 

57. The Julian and Flavian Cassars, 14-96 A. D. 

58. The Empire under the "Good" Emperors, 96-180 

A. D. 

59. The Roman Empire under the Soldier Emperors: A 

Century of Revolution, 180-284 A. D. 

60. The Roman Empire under the Absolute Emperors, 

284-375 A. D. 

61. The Rise and Triumph of Christianity. 

XII. THE TRANSITION PERIOD, 376-800 A. D. 

62. The Invasions, and the Fall of the Western Empire, 

376-476 A. D. 



42 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

63. The West : Continued Invasions, and Formation 

of Germanic States, 476-774 A. D. 

64. The East: One Emperor (Constantinople); A new 

Prophet, 476-732 A. D. 

65. "The Kise of the Christian Church." 

66. The Growth of the Frankish Power ; A new Emperor, 

486-800 A. D. 

67. Retrospect, from the Euphrates to the Rhine. 

Medieval and Modern European History. 

i. the carolingian empire and the rise of feudalism. 

1. The Development of the Christian Church. 

2. The Consolidation of Various German Tribes into the 

Frankish Kingdom, to 768. 

3. The Wars and Conquests of Charlemagne. 

4. The Founding of the Empire of Charlemagne, 

800 A. D. 

5. The Decline of the Carolingian Empire, and the 

Formation of Separate Monarchies. 

6. The Beginnings of Feudalism. 

II. THE PAPACY AND THE BEGINNING OF THE NEW GERMAN- 
ROMAN EMPIRE. 

7. Germany and Italy, to the Death of Otto the Great, 

973. 

8. The Struggle over the Right of Investiture, to 1122. 

9. Frederick I (Barbarossa), 1152-1190. 

10. Innocent III and his Position in Christendom, 

1198-1216. 

11. Frederick II and the Fall of the Hohenstauffen. 

III. THE FORMATION OF FRANCE, TO 1328. 

12. The Rise of the Capetian Dynasty, to 11 80. 

13. France under Philip Augustus and St. Louis, 

1180-1270. 

14. Philip the Fair of France, 1285-1314, and Pope Boni- 

face VIII, 1294-1303. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 43 

IV. THE EAST AND THE CRUSADES, 1096-1270. 

15. The East before the Crusades. 

16. The First Crusade, 1096-1099. 

17. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Second Crusade. 

18. The Third and Fourth Crusades. 

19. The End of the Crusades. ' 

V. CHRISTIAN AND FEUDAL CIVILIZATIONS. 

20. The Church in the Thirteenth Century. 

21. Mediaeval Schools and Universities. 

22. The Life of the Military Classes. 

23. Peasant Life. 

24. Towns and Town Life. 

25. Mediasval Commerce. 

VI. THE ERA OF THE RENAISSANCE. FOURTEENTH AND FIF- 
TEENTH CENTURIES. 

26. Germany and the Empire, 1273-1493. 

27. France in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries; 

The Hundred Years' War. 

28. The Consolidation of Spain into a Powerful Mon- 

archy. 

29. Political and Social Conditions in Italy in the Four- 

teenth and Fifteenth Centuries. 

30. The Beginning of the Renaissance in Italy; The Re- 

vival of Learning. 

31. The Fine Arts during the Renaissance. 

32. The Age of Great Discoveries and Inventions. 

33. Reforming movements of the Fifteenth Century. 

VII. THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION AND THE WARS OF 
RELIGION, 1517-1648. 

34. The Eve of the Reformation in Germany. 

35. The Lutheran Reformation, to 1525. 

36. Charles V and the Reformation in Germany, 1526- 

1555. 



44 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

37. The Zwinglian Reformation in Switzerland, to 1531. 

38. John Calvin and his Work. 

39. Rise of Protestantism in France, to 1572. 

40. France nnder Henry IV. 

41. The Catholic Reformation and the Jesuits. 

42. The Revolt of the Netherlands, 1568-1648. 

43. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648. 

VIII. THE ASCENDANCY OF FRANCE AND THE AGE OF 
LOUIS XIV. 

44. Richelieu and the Establishment of the Absolute 

Monarchy. 

45. Louis XIV (1661-1715) and his Court. 

46. The People ; Colbert and his Reforms. 

47. Louis XIV 's Wars. 

IX. THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

48. The Formation of . the Russian Empire, Peter the 

Great. 

49. The Expansion of Russia in the Eighteenth Century. 

50. The Beginnings of the Prussian State. 1640-1740. 

51. Frederick the Great, 1740-1786. 

52. Frederick the Great in Time of Peace. 

53. The Expansion of England. 

X. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

54. The Struggle for the Succession, 44-31 B. C. 

55. Growth of a Revolutionary Spirit before 1789. 

56. Louis XVI (1774-1793) and Attempts at Reform. 

57. The Beginning of the Revolution, and the Destruc- 

tion of the Old Regime, 1789. 

58. The Attempt to Make a Constitution, 1789-1791. 

59. The Failure of the Constitution and Fall of the Mon- 

archy, 1791-1792. 

60. The First French Republic and the War against 

Europe, 1792-1793. 

61. The Reign of Terror, 1793-1794. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 45 

XI. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, 1795-1815. 

62. France in 1795. 

63. General Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt, 1796-1799. 

64. Bonaparte as Consul, 1799-1304. 

65. The Napoleonic Empire, 1804. 

66. Napoleon's Campaigns from Austerlitz to Tilsit, 

1805-1807. 

67. The National Uprisings against Napoleon, 1808-1812. 

68. The Downfall of Napoleon, 1813-1815. 

XII. GROWTH OP NATIONALITY, DEMOCRACY AND LIBERTY IN 
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

69. The Congress of Vienna and Metternich's System of 

Absolution. 

70. The Paris Revolutions of 1830 and 1848. 

71. France under Napoleon III and the Third Republic. 

72. The Unification of Italy. 

73. The Struggle for Liberty and Unity in Germany, 

1815-1858. 

74. The Foundation of the German Empire under Bis- 

marck and William I (1858-1888). 

75. Austria-Hungary under Francis Joseph I, 1848. 

76. Turkey and the Eastern Question. 

77. Development of Russia in the Nineteenth. Century. 

78. The Expansion of Europe. 

79. The Material Progress of the Nineteenth Century. 

English History, 
i. early britain. 

1. The Land and its Resources. 

2. Britain before the Roman Conquest. 

3. Britain and the Romans, 55 B. C. to 410 A. D. 

II. THE BEGINNINGS OP ENGLAND, FIFTH TO TENTH CENTURY. 

4. The Coming of the Angles and Saxons 

5. The English Kingdoms. 



46 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

6. England and the Danes, Eighth and Ninth Centuries. 

7. Reunion of England Under Wessex, Tenth Century. 

t 

III. ENGLAND UNDER FOREIGN RULE, ELEVENTH AND 
TWELFTH CENTURIES. 

8. The Danish Conquest, 984-1042. 

9. The English Restoration, 1042-1066. 

10. England and the Normans, 1066-1154. 

11. The Early Angevins, 1154-1199. 

IV. THE STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY, THIR- 
TEENTH CENTURY. 

12. Winning the Charter. 

13. The Shaping of the Nation. 

14. The Struggle for Good Government. 

15. Progress under Edward I. 

16. "The British Idea." 

V. THE HUNDRED YEARS ' WAR, 1337-1453. 

17. Edward III and France, 1327-1377. 

18. The Social Revolt of the Fourteenth Century. 

19. The Constitutional Monarchy, 1309-1461. 

20. The House of Lancaster and France, 1414-1453. 

21. The Wars of the Roses, 1455-1485. 

VI. ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS, 1485-1603. 

22. The New Monarchy. 

23. The Renaissance in England. 

24. The Beginnings of the English Reformation. 

25. The Age of Elizabeth, 1558-1603. 

26. Tudor England. 

VII. THE PURITAN REVOLUTION, 1603-1660. 

27. The Beginning of Strife, 1603-1625. 

28. Breach between King and Parliament 1625-1629. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 47 

29. The Personal Rule of Charles I, 1629-1640. 

30. The Long Parliament. 

31. The Great Rebellion, 1642-1649. 

32. Puritan Rule, 1649-1660. 

VIII. RESTORATION AND REVOLUTION, 1660-1688. 

33. England under Charles II, 1660-1685. 

34. Overthrow of the Stuarts, 1688. 

IX. WARS OF EMPIRE, 1689-1815. 

35. William III and Louis XIV, 1689-1697. 

36. The War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-1713. 

37. The War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-1748. 

38. The Seven Years' War, 1756-1763. 

39. The American Revolution, 1775-1783. 

40. The War of the French Revolution, 1793-1802. 

41. War against Napoleon, 1803-1815. 

X. HANOVERIAN ENGLAND. 

42. The Constitution after the Revolution of 1688. 

43. Religion and Philanthropy. 

44. The Industrial Revolution. 

XI. THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

45. The Rise of Democracy. 

46. The Life of the People. 

47. Relations of England and Ireland, 1800-1900. 

XII. THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 

48. India and the Eastern Question. 

49. The Colonies. 

Advanced American History. 

The law provides, — chapter 96, Laws of 1901, section 4, 
as amended by laws of 1903 and 1905, — that an approved 
high school shall include reasonable instruction in the con- 



48 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

stitutioii of the United States and in the constitution of 
New Hampshire. The department will approve instruction 
according to the scope of the following outline as such 
reasonable instruction, the same to be required of every 
pupil. The teacher should follow in full the History 
Syllabus for Secondary Schools. 

I. DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATIONS PRIOR TO 1607. 

1. The Land and its Resources. 

2. Discovery of America. 

3. Exploration and Early Settlements, before James- 

town, 1492-1607. 

II. SOUTHERN COLONIES, 1607-1660. 

4. Virginia, a Typical Southern Colony. 

5. Maryland. 

6. Carolinas and Georgia, the Southern Frontier Col- 

onies. 

III. NEW ENGLAND, 1620-1760. 

7. Beginnings of Colonization of New England. Char- 

acter and Aims of Puritans, Pilgrims, and Plymouth 
Colony. 

8. Early Massachusetts. 

9. New England, 1636-1760. 

IV. MIDDLE COLONIES, 1609-1760. 

10. Dutch and English in New York. 

11. Pennsylvania, *' A Quaker Experiment in Govern- 

ment," New Jersey and Delaware. 

V. COLONIES IN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO 1760. 

12. Political, Social, and Economic Development of the 

Colonies, 1700-1750. 

13. Struggle between France and England for North 

America, 1689-1763. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 49 

14. Condition of the Colonies in 1760 (or 1765), Polit- 

ical. Social, and Economic; Comparisons between 
the Three Sections. 

VI. UNION AND INDEPENDENCE, 1760-1783. 

15. Causes of the American Revolution, 1760-1783. 

16. The Revolution, 1775-1783. 

VII. THE CRITICAL PERIOD, 1783-1789. 

17. Confederation and Constitution. 

VIII. THE FEDERALIST SUPREMACY, 1789-1801. 

18. Organization of the National Government. 

19. Foreign Relations, 1793-1800. 

20. Fall of the Federalists, 1798-1801. 

IX. THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS, 1801-1817. 

21. General Principles and Domestic Policy of Jeffer- 

son 's Administration. 

22. Expansion. 

23. Struggle for Neutral Rights. 

X. REORGANIZATION, 1817-1829. 

24. Economic Reorganization. 

25. Westward Migration and Internal Improvements. 

26. Slavery and the Missouri Compromise. 

27. The Monroe Doctrine and the Panama Congress. 

28. Political Reorganization and the Triumph of Jack- 

son. 

XI. NATIONAL DEMOCRACY, 1829-1844. 

29. Nullification in South Carolina; the Question of State 

Sovereignty. 

30. Financial Question, 1830-1842. 

31. Anti-Slavery Agitation, 1831-1838. 



50 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

XII. SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES, 1844-1860. 

32. Annexation of Texas and the Mexican War. 

33. Struggle over Slavery in the Territories. 

XIII. SECESSION AND CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865. 

34. Secession of the Southern States. 

35. The Civil War. 

XIV. PROBLEMS OP PEACE, 1865-1904. 

36. Reconstruction, the New South, and the Race Prob- 

lems. 

37. Political Problems Since 1865. 

38. Economic Problems Since 1865. 

39. Summary and Eeview of American History. 

In addition to the above outline, and toward the close 
of the work, there must be a thorough review of the consti- 
tution and a thorough study of the constitution 
and government of New Hampshire as a typical 
commonwealth, the whole constituting a review and syn- 
thesis of the civil government of nation, state and munici- 
pality. The study of American history, and of English 
history if taken, is a prolonged study of civil government, 
and needs for its completion only the crystalizing effect of 
a concise, but thorough-going civil government summary. 

History op Commerce. 
See Chapter XIII, Commerce. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

MATHEMATICS. 

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. 

1. Algebra to quadratics. 

The fundamental operations ; factoring, including the 
finding of highest common factor and lowest common mul- 
tiple, and roots; fractions, including complex fractions; 
ratio and proportion ; simple equations, both numerical and 
literal, containing one or more unknown quantities, with 
applications; radicals, including the extraction of the 
square root of polynomial algebraic expressions and of 
numbers expressed arithmetically; exponents, both frac- 
tional and negative. 

2. Quadratics and radicals. 

Quadratic equations, both numerical and literal; simple 
cases of equations with one or more unknown quantities 
which can be solved by the methods of simple or quad- 
ratic equations, including radical equations ; problems in- 
volving quadratic equations. 

Pupils should be required, in connection with their as- 
signed daily work, to solve numerous problems which in- 
volve putting questions into equations. These problems 
should involve facts and business relating to mensuration, 
physics and commercial life. Graphical methods and illus- 
trations should be employed in connection with the solu- 
tion of simple forms of quadratic equations. 

PLANE GEOMETRY. 

The theorems and constructions of the best text-books, 
including plane rectilinear figures; the measurement of 
angles ; proportion and similar figures ; circles ; areas of all 
kinds; regular polygons and the measurement of circles. 



52 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

The demonstration of the more important original prop- 
ositions relating to construction and computation and the 
solution of problems on loci. Application of principles 
already learned to the measurement of lines and plane 
surfaces. 

The requirements in original work should be based on 
some good standard text-book in plane geometry. The 
demonstration of original propositions should be taken up 
in connection with the written work of the text-book. A 
minimum requirement of four hundred original proposi- 
tions in this course and in the review course should be met in 
plane geometry. Teachers should strive to give a slight his- 
torical sketch of the more interesting theorems or problems 
to add as much interest as possible to the subject. 

The solution of all original propositions should be pre- 
served in carefully prepared note-books. These books 
should be collected by the teacher at the close of each 
school year. 

Review Algebra. 

This is a single-semester course followed by a single- 
semester course in geometry. After a careful review of 
principles previously learned, give much attention to the 
binomial theorem for positive integral exponents, the form- 
ula? for the n-th term and the sum of the n terms of arith- 
metical and geometric progression with applications. Sup- 
plement the text-book with much original work. 

Review Geometry. 

Single-semester course continuous with review algebra. 

The work will be a rapid review of the propositions of 
the first course and work on original exercises up to the full 
aggregate specified above. 

ADVANCED ARITHMETIC. 

Review of elementary arithmetic with advanced appli- 
cations of principles; the metric system; short processes; 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 53 

stocks and bonds, exchange, accounts ; ratio and proportion ; 
series; mensuration; continued fractions; logarithms and 
applications. 

ADVANCED ALGEBRA. 

Permutations and combinations limited to simple cases; 
complex numbers with graphical representations of sums 
and differences ; determinants, chiefly of second, third, and 
fourth orders, including the use of minors and the solu- 
tion of simple equations; binomial theorem; undetermined 
coefficients ; series ; logarithms ; detached equations ; theory 
of equations ; solution of higher numerical equations. 

It is expected that the teacher in every department of 
mathematics will continue to supplement the text-book 
with original questions for solution. 

SOLID GEOMETRY. 

The usual theorems and constructions of the best text- 
books, including the relation of planes and lines in space; 
the properties and measurements of prisms, cylinders, and 
cones; the sphere and the spherical triangle; the solution 
of original exercises, including problems on loci ; application 
to the mensuration of surfaces and solids. 

The pupil should preserve the solution of all original 
work in note-books for future reference. A minimum of 
one hundred to one hundred and ten originals should be 
worked out. 

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY AISD SURVEYING. 

The theory of the functions and their relations ; circular 
measurement of angles; proofs of principal formulae for 
the computation of the tables and the solution of right and 
oblique plane triangles, and of problems in surveying, to- 
gether with the use of surveying instruments; theory and 
use of logarithms with a thorough understanding of the 
use of trigonometric tables in the solution of problems. 



54 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Surveying may or may not be given in connection with 
trigonometry. Some schools have instruments and are 
recommended to place some stress on this course with field 
work in the same. 



CHAPTER IX. 

PHYSICS. 

The course of instruction should include : 

1. Individual laboratory work consisting of not less 
than forty experiments requiring approximately thirty- 
five double periods. 

2. Instruction by lecture table demonstrations, to be 
used mainly as a basis for questioning upon the general 
principles of physics and their applications. 

3. The study of one or more standard text-books in 
order that the student may gain a comprehensive and 
connected view of the important facts and laws of physics. 

Especial attenion should be given to the explanation and 
illustration of the common physical laws and their in- 
dustrial applications. 

This can be accomplished through: 

(a) Lectures and prepared explanatory statements by 
the instructor. 

(b) By discussions based upon readings from sup- 
plementary scientific books, and articles in papers and 
magazines, correspondence with or visits to large industrial 
or manufacturing establishments. 

(c) The solution of a considerable number of numeri- 
cal problems based upon the topics under discussion. At 
least one problem should be solved and recorded in the 
note-book for each experiment performed. 

Laboratory Work. 

Theory. 

The object of preparatory science is not to re-discover 
old laws, nor to set crude and untrained minds to profitless 
and aimless experimenting, but rather to verify laws, to 



56 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

understand their origin, operation and results, and to 
scientifically observe and systematically record what is 
noted in these processes. 

Therefore a student should have before beginning an 
experiment: (a) a clear idea of what he is to do; (b) how 
he is to do it; (c) what results may reasonably be expected; 
and (d) the principal sources of error. A general idea 
of the subject gained from text-book and instruction should 
precede every experiment. 

Method. 

The ideal method of conducting laboratory work is to 
have all pupils engaged on the same experiment at the 
same time. This permits the teacher to instruct the whole 
section or class upon any point demanding unusual care, 
or to help backward pupils. It, however, requires so much 
duplication of apparatus that only well equipped schools 
can attempt it. Excellent work can be done without the 
expense of duplicating apparatus by assigning a set of ex- 
periments upon one subject. 

The number of experiments prepared should be at least 
equal to the size of the class, working two at one table, — 
and using the apparatus in rotation. By this plan no 
two tables are engaged upon the same experiment at the 
same time. A modification of this method consists of pur- 
chasing one each of the more expensive pieces .of apparatus 
and duplicating for individual use those pieces of less ex- 
pense. 

Note-Books. 

A record of all observations made by the pupil in 
performing the experiment should be neatly recorded in 
a note-book provided for that purpose. This note-book 
should be the book of original entry, and all record of ob- 
servations should be made in the laboratory at the time 
when the experiment was performed and just as indicated 
by the apparatus used without any change or correction. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 57 

Order. 
A good order for the arrangement of notes is as follows : 

(a) Date and name of pnpil. 

(b) Object of the experiment. 

(c) Record of temperature, pressure, humidity, or any 
facts having a possible bearing upon the experiment. 

(d) Sketch or description of apparatus used. Drawings 
should be plain outline diagrams of the apparatus at the 
most significant part of the -experiment, accurate rather 
than artistic. 

(e) A plain, concise statement expressed in definite and 
complete sentences describing all the important steps in the 
experiment. Copying statements from text or manual 
should not be tolerated. 

(f ) A tabular arrangement of all data collected. 

(g) A statement showing the results and how they w T ere 
obtained. 

(h) A statement of laws derived and general con- 
clusions warranted by the results. 

(i) A statement of the chief causes of error. The 
total error and the per cent of error. 

(j) The solution and record of at least one problem 
to illustrate the topic discussed. A great many more ex- 
periments should be performed, but not necessarily re- 
corded. 

Not all of these subdivisions will occur in every experi- 
ment. In general, statements d, e, and f should be recorded 
upon the left hand pages and all the other items upon the 
page opposite. Cross section paper with diagrams can 
be inserted when needed. 

Large, unruled note-books ten by twelve inches, or 
larger, should be used. No records should ever be kept 
upon scraps of paper or any thing other than the book pro- 
vided. The original entry may be made with a pencil as it 
is not always practicable to compel the use of ink in the 
laboratory. Record on right hand pages can be filled in in 
ink before the next experiment. 



58 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Care. 

Much care and neatness should be insisted upon in the 
keeping of these note-books by the pupils, not only for the 
disciplinary value, but because these books of original 
entry are the ones usually required by colleges from all 
candidates for admission, and should, at least, be legible 
and clear. 

Index. 

All note-books should contain an index showing title 
and number of experiment, also page where recorded. 

Certification. 

When the note-book has been completed, the instructor 
should attach the following certificate to the inside of the 
front cover: 

High School, N. H. 

190.... 

This note-book contains the original record of the work 

done by 

in the laboratory of the 

High School, under my immediate supervision. 

The records of experiments on the left hand pages 
were written in the laboratory at the time when the ex- 
periment was performed. 

Signed • 

Teacher of 

Copies of this certificate can be obtained by application 
to the Secretary of the College Entrance Examination 
Board, Sub-station 84, New York City. 

Supervision and Correction. 

One of the most fatal defects of any system of laboratory 
work and record, is the lack of supervision and correction 
of the work done. Careless, inaccurate and slovenly work 
is often allowed to pass uncorrected, or even unnoticed, and 
generally for some of the following reasons: (a) lack of 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 59 

time on the part of the instructor; (b) the inability to 
secure at a convenient time all of the note-books in which 
the students are continuously recording their work; and 
(e) the dislike of correcting an accumulated set of ex- 
periments where as much time is often required in find- 
ing the experiments as in correcting them. This can be 
almost entirely prevented by the following- plan: 

Before beginning each new experiment every pupil 
should be required to hand in to the instructor an abstract 
or statement of the previous experiment, written in ink, 
in the following form upon a sheet of paper sixteen inches 
wide, folded in the middle, and ten inches long, making a 
four-sheet folder eight by ten, and perforated for binding. 
The two inside pages are ruled for cross section work. 
Upon outside of first and fourth pages is the following : 

(First Page.) 

REPORT SHEET — PHYSICAL LABORATORY. 

Name 

Experiment No Instructor Date 

Object of Experiment : 

Diagrams of apparatus actually used, and description of 
methods in your own words : 

(Fourth Page.) 
Conclusions : 
Errors and necessary precautions : 

The inside pages will contain all readings systematically 
arranged and an outline of calculations, together with 
plottings of curves and all necessary section work. 

These sheets of proper size and properly printed may be 
obtained from the college printer at Hanover, N. H. After 
filling out by the pupil, they are to be handed to the in- 
structor for inspection and correction. When satisfactory, 
they are to be kept on file by the instructor until the end 
of the course, when they may be permanently bound and 



60 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

become the property of the pupil. The Department of 
Public Instruction requests that such sheets be used and 
may call for copies for inspection at any time. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

The following forty experiments approved for the sec- 
ondary schools of New Hampshire are similar to those out- 
lined by the College Entrance Examination Board, Har- 
vard, The Western Teachers' Physics Association, and 
other standard schools and colleges. 

Inasmuch as explicit directions for performing each of 
the experiments in this list may be found in nearly every 
standard text and laboratory manual now published (a 
list of which is appended), it is not deemed necessary to 
reprint here all the details of each experiment. Different 
teachers will adopt different methods for performing the 
experiments prescribed and are urged to acquaint them- 
selves with the various standard methods now employed. 
A number of the best and latest laboratory manuals as 
well as a file of the latest catalogs of all standard makers 
of physical apparatus should be accessible to the class and 
new methods, devices and modifications encouraged. 

PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS. 

A. Measurement of a Straight Line. 

B. Measurement and Computed Area of a Right Tri- 
angle and Circle. 

C. Measurement, Area and Volume of a Solid. 

D. Volume of Rectangular Bodies by Displacement of 
"Water. 

Note. Directions for performing the above experiments 
may be found in the Harvard Course phamplet, Exper- 
iment A et seq., also in the National Physics Note-book, Ex- 
periment A; the laboratory manuals of Cheston, Dean & 
Timmerman, page 7; Coleman, page 14; Adams, page 20; 
Twiss, page 9; Nichols, Smith & Turton, page 2; and 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 61 

numerous other manuals as well as in the texts of Avery, 
Gilley, Hoadley, etc. 

See also Scientific American Supplement No. 200, for 
" Devices for Measuring," and Supplements Nos. 84, 85, 86 
and 87, for "How to Draw a Straight Line " All Scien- 
tific American Supplements are exceedingly full of val- 
uable information, most of them illustrated and with ex- 
plicit directions concerning all details. Procurable from 
Munn & Co., 361 Broadway, New York City, for ten 
cents each. 

Description and use of verniers, calipers, cathetometers, 
etc., may well be introduced here. 

Experiments. 

hydrostatics and mechanics. 

1. Weight of a Unit Volume of a Substance. 

2. Lifting Effect of Water upon a Body Entirely 
Submerged in it and Weight of the Water Displaced. 

3. Specific Gravity of a Solid Body that Will Sink in 
Water. 

4. Specific Gravity of a Block of Wood by Means of 
a Sinker. 

5. Specific Gravity by Flotation Method. 

6. Specific Gravity of a Liquid. Three methods. 

7. Levers. First, Second and Third Class. 

8. Center of Gravity and Weight of a Lever. 

9. Parallelogram of Forces, two. three, or more. 

10. Friction, (a) Solid bodies on a Level. 

(b) Coefficient of Friction by sliding or 
incline. 

11. Breaking Strength of Wires. 

12. Elasticity of Bending. 

13. Compressibility of Air. Boyle's Law. 

14. Density of Air. 

LIGHT. 

15. Use of a Photometer. 

16. Images in a Plane Mirror. 



62 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

17. Images Formed by Concave and Convex, Cylin- 
drical or Spherical Mirrors. 

18. Index of Refraction of Glass and Water. 

19. Focal Length and Conjugate Foci of a Converg- 
ing Lens. 

20. Shape and Size of a Red Image Formed by a Lens. 

21. Color in the Spectrum, or Study of Spectra with a 
Simple Spectroscope, or Study of Polarized Light. 

HEAT. 

22. Testing a Mercury Thermometer. 

23. Linear Expansion of a Solid. 

24. Specific Heat of a Solid. 

25. Determination of the Dew Point. 

26. Latent Heat of Melting or Vaporization. 

27. Conduction of Heat. 

28. (a) Increase of Pressure of a Gas Heated at a Con- 
stant Volume, or (b) Increase of Volume of a Gas Heated 
at Constant Pressure. 

SOUND. 

29. Velocity and Wave Length of Sound. 

30. Number of Vibrations of a Tuning Fork. 

31. Laws of Vibrations of Strings. 

32. Velocity of Sound in Solids. Kundt's Method. 

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. 

33. Lines of Force about a Magnet. 

34. Study of a Single Fluid Cell. The effect of Amal- 
gamation. 

35. Study of a Two-Fluid Galvanic Cell* Constancy. 
Increase or Loss of Weights of the Elements. 

36. Resistance of Wires by Substitution. Various 
Lengths. 

37. Resistance of Wires by Substitution. Cross-section 
and Multiple Arc. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 63 

38. Measurement of Resistance with the Wheatstone 
Bridge. 

39. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance. 

40. Battery Resistance, (a) Effect of plate area, (b) 
effect of varying distance between poles, (c) cells in paral- 
lel, (d) cells in series. 

The subject of electricity offers an almost unlimited 
field for the enthusiastic instructor or inventive pupil. 
The assembling or " setting up " of simple telegraph lines 
with and without relays, the study of the X-ray. telephone, 
and the marine cable, construction and operation of small 
dynamos, motors, wireless telegraph outfits, electric lights, 
bells, wiring, heating, plating and the manifold applica- 
tions of electricity to our industrial life render the subject 
fascinating to the most enthusiastic student. See Scien- 
tific American Supplement No. 282 for full directions, with 
illustrations showing how to make a good Holtz Machine; 
No. 1182, Electric Furnace; No. 761, Electric Motor 
(small) ; No. 783, Motor (Gramme Ring) ; No. 919, Wims- 
hurst Machine ; No. 1363, Wireless Telegraph ; No. 229, In- 
duction Coil. 

Apparatus. 

The following list of apparatus is the minimum amount 
necessary for a class of twelve, working two at one table, 
to perform the forty prescribed experiments. With this 
amount of apparatus, the work must be largely done in 
rotation as previously described, and the list must be in- 
creased if it is to be used by more than twelve pupils. 
On the other hand, it cannot be diminished much, if it 
is to be used by less than twelve pupils, since in many 
cases only one article of a class is called fur. Duplicates 
are necessary, since many experiments, while not identical, 
require the same pieces, of apparatus and it is awkward 
for groups to be obliged to wait for apparatus. 

The list of apparatus is arranged in two columns, A 



64 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

and B. Articles appearing in column A are necessary, no 
matter how few or how many are in the class; those in 
column B are for a standard unit of twelve, and the num- 
ber may be increased or diminished, as the size of the class 
requires. 

The apparatus required is all standard and can be pur- 
chased of any of the firms manufacturing physical appa- 
ratus at short notice. Many schools, doubtless, have much 
of the apparatus already, and will need only to supple- 
ment it by reference to this list. 

Much of the apparatus is easily made and suggestions 
towards that end will appear later. 

Notes accompanying Experiments and Apparatus are 
based upon personal experience and are intended to be 
helpful or suggestive, rather than mandatory. 

The list of apparatus is arranged according to the order 
of the experiments and contains every thing essential for 
performing them. 

APPARATUS. 

No. A. B. 

1. Meter-rod, with both metric and Eng- 

lish graduations 6 

2. Thirty cm. ruler, beveled edge 6 

3. Ten cm. section of meter-rod 6 

4. Waterproofed wooden cylinder 8 cm. 

long, 4 cm. diameter, loaded inter- 
nally with shot 1 

5. Brass can 14 cm. tall and 7 cm. diam. 

with overflow tube near the top. ... 1 

6. Brass catch can with handle, holding 

about 175 gm. water 1 

7. Spring balance of 240 gm, capacity, 

graduated on one side in 10 gm. di- 
visions, on the other in y L oz. di- 
visions , 1 



PROGRAM OP STUDIES. 65 

No. A. B. 

8. Rectangular block of wood (water- 

proofed by boiling in paraffin), 8 cm. 
long, 4 cm. square at each end, loaded 
internally so that it will sink. Not to 
exceed 225 gm 1 

9. Rectangular block, cherry wood, 8 cm. 

x 4 cm. x 4 cm. Not loaded 1 

10. One-gallon glass jar 4 

11. Wooden rod 30 cm. long, 1 cm. square, 

loaded 1 

12. Copper sulphate or salt 2 lbs. 

13. Hydrometer jar about 35 cm. tall, 8 

cm. diam 2 

14. Specific gravity bottle, glass stoppered, 

200 gm. capacity . 1 

15. Assorted glass tubing one meter long 1 lb. 

16. Three-way glass tubes, small 3 

17. Hydrometer for liquids heavier and 

lighter than water 1 

18. Harvard Trip Scale with iron weights 

1 kilo to 5 gms 1 

19. Thirty cm. sections of meter-rod pivot- 

ed at the center by a screw to bar of 
hard wood about 25 cm. x 5 cm. x 
3 cm 3 

20. Scale pans for No. 19 4 

21. Spring balances, 10 kgm. capacity. ... 3 

22. Flat pine board, 3 ft. long, 1 ft. wide, 1 

inch thick 1 

23. Pine block, 8 x 4 x 2 inches 1 

24. Small single wooden or brass pulley. . 3 

25. Spring brass wire No. 27, B. & S. gauge 1 spool 

26. Cylindrical graduate 250 cu. cm 2 

27. Pine rods, 102 cm. x 1.3 cm. x 1.3 cm. . 2 

28. Pine rods, 102 cm. x 2.6 cm. x 1.3 cm. 6 



66 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

No. A. B. 

29. Micrometer screw caliper with electric 

connections 1 

30. Hard wood prisms, 3 cm. long and 2 

cm. wide 4 

31. Set of iron weights, 100, 200, 300, 500, 

and 1,000 gms 1 

32. Barometer 1 

33. Mercury 2 lbs. 

34. Glass tube for Boyle's law, or Boyle's 

law apparatus 1 

35. Two-litre glass bottle 1 

36. Perforated rubber stopper to fit No. 35 1 

37. Eubber tubing, thick wall, .5 cm. int. 

diam 10 ft. 

38. Rubber tubing, ordinary, .5 cm. int. 

diam 10 ft. 

39. Pinchcocks 4 

40. Air pump for exhaustion and compres- 

sion, or aspirator 1 

41. Set of brass weights, 500 gm. to 1 gm. 1 

42. Bunsen photometer 1 

43. Wax candles 12 

44. Plane mirror, 6x2 inches 2 

45. Concave and convex cylindrical mirror 1 

46. Concave and convex spherical mirror. 1 

47. Piece of plate glass, 7 cm. square, 6 cm. 

thick, opposite sides ground and pol- 
ished 1 

48. Gilley refraction board (easily made). 1 

49. Set of demonstration lenses, three con- 

vex, three concave 1 

50. Lens holder, pins, and card holder, 

set for use on a meter stick 3 sets 

51. Small kerosene lamp with perforated 

asbestos or metal shield 1 

52. Glass prism 1 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 67 

No. A. B. 

53. Apparatus A 2 

54. Thermometer, glass etched, F. and C. 

scale 4 

55. Copper alcohol lamps 6 

Note. If gas is available, this is, of 
course, preferable. 

56. Linear expansion apparatus. The best 

kind is provided with a micrometer 
screw at one end and movable point- 
ers at the other 1 

57. Brass rod to fit No. 56 1 

58. Aluminum rod to fit No. 56 . . , 1 

59. Dry air tube with globule of mercury. 1 

60. Calorimeter 4 

61. Lead shot 2 lbs. 

62. Hydrometer, Mason's 1 

63. Steam trap for vaporization experiment 1 

64. Set of wires for conduction in heat 

experiment 1 

65. Tuning fork, 256 vibrations 1 

66. Apparatus for determining the number 

of vibrations of a tuning fork 1 

67. Sonometer 1 

68. Small vise 1 

69. Glass tube about 75 cm. long and about 

2.5 cm. diameter 1 

70. Bar magnet 2 

71. Horseshoe magnet 1 

72. Compass, small 3 

73. Photographic plates, 5 in. x 7 in. rapid. 6 

74. Skidmore Battery outfits 3 

75. G-alvanoscope 1 

76. Daniell cell, small 3 

77. Sulphuric acid 1 

78. Galvanometer, tangent 1 

79. Galvanometer, D 'Arsouval type ...... 1 



68 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

No. A. B. 

80. Commutator 2 

81. No. 30, German silver wire 1 spool 

82. Double binding screws 1 doz. 

83. No. 28 German silver wire 1 spool 

84. Astatic galvanometer 1 

85. Wheatstone bridge, slide wire pattern 1 

86. Set of resistance coils on spools 1 

87. Resistance box 1 

88. Temperature coil 1 

89. Wire gauge, B. & S 1 

90. Brass divider with needle point, pen 

and pencil, 5 in 1 

91. Brass protractor, 5 in 1 

92. Micrometer, caliper 1 

93. Vernier caliper 1 

94. Glass U tube, arms one meter long. ... 1 

MANUFACTURE OP APPARATUS. 

The making of simple pieces of apparatus by members 
of the class should be encouraged in every school where 
practicable. By this practice a rare interest in the sub- 
ject is maintained, a large amount of apparatus which 
must otherwise be done without is obtained at a compara- 
tive slight cost, a spirit of self-reliance and investigation 
fostered and minds dormant or mischievious often aroused 
to activity and usefulness. 

Select a pupil or group of pupils naturally inclined to 
tools and their use, assign some piece of interesting and 
simple apparatus, provide explicit directions, raw material 
and a little enthusiasm, and the pupils will do the rest. 

Some of the articles best adapted for home manufacture, 
are the following. They have all been made by pupils of 
preparatory schools in the state, are fully described in ac- 
cessible books, supplements and manuals, and are a great 
addition to the equipment of any laboratory - 

1. Jolly Balance. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 69 

2. Coefficient of Friction Apparatus. 

3. Dynamo. 

4. Half Horse Power Motor. 
.5. "Wireless Telegraph. 

6. Seconds Pendulum with Electric Contact and Bell. 

7. Induction Coil, one inch spark. 

8. Wimshurst Machine, six inch spark. 

9. Telegraph Set. 

10. Set of Levers and Pulleys. 

11. Inclined Plane. 

12. "Wheel and Axle. 

13. Eefraction of Light Apparatus. 

14. Trolley Car. 

15. Numerous Blocks, Prisms, Cylinders, etc., of wood. 

16. Acetylene Light Apparatus. 

17. Atwood's Machine. 

18. Electric Lights, Arc and Incandescent Systems. 

19. Bell Wiring. 

20. Barometer. 

21. Thermometer and numerous other articles. 

Every laboratory should be equipped with a suitable 
supply of the common carpenter's tools, a good work 
bench, and supply of hard and soft woods planed oh both 
sides. This will enable broken apparatus to be repaired, 
and encourage the production of new. 

Every laboratory should be provided with a suitable 
sink and table for every two pupils. Also a good supply 
of running water, and gas if possible. If not, the next best 
means of obtaining a supply of heat suitable for all phys- 
ical and chemical experiments is the gasolene torch or blast 
lamp similar to that used by plumbers. Of course, a suit- 
able number of brass or copper alcohol lamps should be 
provided, and racks or standards for supporting articles 
provided for the tables. 

Book cases for the science library and reference books 
should be in the laboratory, pictures of scientists or scien- 



70 



SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 



tific inventions adorn its walls, and the whole atmosphere 
of the place made attractive, instead of the dismal, bleak 
effect of attic or cellar corners and closets, too often as- 
signed for laboratory work. 

The following list of books should form a part of every 
school library, together with others previously mentioned: 



Author 



Title. 



Daniel, 

Everett, 

Edser, 



Publishers. 
MaeMillan. 



A Text-book of 

Physics, 
C. C. S. System of 

Units, with Tables of 

Physical Constants, MaeMillan 
Heat for Advanced 





Students, 


MaeMillan. 


Ganot (Atkinson), 


Physics, 


Longmans, 
(Also Wm. 
Wood & 
Company). 


Hopkins, G. H., 


Experimental 






Science, 


Munn & Co. 


Jackson & Jackson 


, Elementary Electricity 






and Magnetism, 


MaeMillan. 


Maxwell, 


Theory of Heat (re- 
vised by Lord 






. Eayleigh), 


Longmans. 


Thompson, S. P., 


Elementary Lessons in 
Electricity and 






Magnetism, 


MaeMillan. 


Thompson, S. P., 


Light, Visible and In- 






visible, 


MaeMillan. 


Watson, 


Elementary Practical 






Physics, 


Longmans. 


Tyndall, 


Lectures on Light, 


Harper & 
Bros. 


Tyndall, 


Lectures on Sound, 


Harper & 
Bros. 



CHAPTER X. 

CHEMISTRY. 
(See also Physics). 

The course of instruction in Chemistry should, include: 

1. Individual laboratory work consisting of exercises 
requiring about thirty periods, in which at least fifty ex- 
periments should be performed and recorded. 

2. Instruction by lecture table demonstrations to be 
used as a basis fo^ questioning upon the general principles 
of chemistry and their applications. 

3. The study of at least one standard text-book in order 
that the pupil may obtain a comprehensive and connected 
view of the more important facts and laws of elementary 
chemistry. 

4. The mathematical solution of numerous chemical 
problems, work which is valuable not only for crystallizing 
and defining chemical knowledge, but also as a review and 
application of the principles of arithmetic. 

It is recommended that throughout the course especial 
attention be paid to the common illustrations of chemical 
phenomena and their industrial, physiological and hy- 
gienic applications ; that visits be made to chemical works, 
dye shops, gas plants, and the like where possible; that 
papers and periodicals devoted to the subject be regularly 
taken for class use; that special reference books and va- 
rious texts, manuals, catalogues, and the like be kept con- 
stantly and easily accessible to the pupiLs ; and that the 
laboratory be made as attractive and workable as possible. 

Laboratory "Work. 
Theory. 

The chief aims in a preparatory course in chemistry are : 
(1) to train the student's mind and faculties by teaching 



72 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

him to observe accurately; (2) to draw correct conclusions 
from the observations; and (3) to furnish some first hand 
information about well known materials, their manufac- 
ture, properties and use. Therefore no attempt should be^ 
made to gain a comprehensive knowledge of the facts of 
the science, nor in any way to encroach upon the province 
of collegiate instruction, but rather to appeal to the experi- 
ment instead of the text for answers to questions, and 
to stimulate the reasoning powers of the pupil by constant 
questioning, supervision and correction. 

Method, Note-boohs, etc. 

The remarks under physics upon these subjects should 
be observed so far as possible in chemistry. 

Since the apparatus and materials necessary for per- 
forming the experiments in chemistry are for the most 
part simple and inexpensive, the individual method should 
be followed much more largely than is usually possible in 
physics. 

Two students working at the same table may profitably 
perform the same experiment together. 

Blanks similar to those described under physics should be 
filled out and handed to the instructor before beginning 
a new set of experiments. Note-books should be indexed, 
and when completed, the instructor should insert the fol- 
lowing certificate, copies of which may be obtained by 
application to the Secretary of the College Entrance Ex- 
amination Board. 

I certify that this note-book is a true and original record 

of the experiments actually performed by 

in the chemical laboratory of 

school during the year 



Instructor in Chemistry. 

EXPERIMENTS. 



All experiments should illustrate some fact under dis- 
cussion, and should be continuous and cumulative, where 



PROGRAM OP STUDIES. 73 

possible, rather than isolated. It is far better for an in- 
structor and his class to learn a considerable number of re- 
lated facts from a simple set of experiments rather than 
to discover almost nothing from a single spectacular ex- 
hibition. Therefore the folloAving list of experiments, rec- 
ommended by the College Entrance Examination Board 
is approved for the preparatory schools of New Hamp- 
shire. Select 50, including six quantitative. 

LIST OP EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Composition of the atmosphere. 

2. Dissociation of mercuric oxide and study of the re- 

sulting products. 

3. Burning of magnesium, sodium, and potassium in 

air, and of iron in oxygen, with study of resulting 
products. 

4. Combination of substances produced in (3) with 

water, and study the results. 

5. Burning of sulphur and phosphorous in the air; 

study of products. 

6. Combination of substances produced in (5) with 

water; study of products. 

7. Treatment of substances resulting from (3) and (4) 

with hydrochloric acid, and examination of fi- 
nal products. 

Laws of C-as Volumes and Vapor Tension : , 

8. Boyle's Law. 

9. Charles's Law. 

10. Vapor tension as related to temperature. 

Common Elements and Compounds : 

11. Preparation and study of oxygen. 

12. Weight of a litre of oxygen under standard con- 

ditions. 

13. Preparation of hydrogen by action of sodium on 

water. Careful study of b} r -product. 



74 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

14. Preparation of hydrogen by zinc and acid. More 

thorough study of hydrogen in larger quantities. 
Study of by-product. 

15. Weight of a litre of hydrogen under standard con- , 

ditions. (Optional for best students.) 

16. Proportion by volume in which hydrogen and oxy- 

gen unite. (Lecture demonstrations with eudi- 
ometer.) 

17. Proportion by weight in which hydrogen and oxy- 

gen combine. 

18. Study of boiling point, freezing point, action on 

litmus, and taste of substance produced by com- 
bining oxygen and hydrogen. 

19. Electrolysis of water, resulting gases being accu- 

rately measured and tested, 

20. Vapor density of water, conclusions as to formulae 

for water. (Optional for best pupils.) 

21. Study of sodium, potassium, lithium, strontium, 

calcium, and barium compounds. Detection of 
presence of these metals by flame test of spec- 
troscope. 

22. Study of salts of cobalt, copper, nickel, manga- 

nese, chromium, iron. Tests for these metals 
and those mentioned in 21, in unknown mixtures. 

23. Study of compounds of aluminum, magnesium, and 

zinc. Tests for these in mixtures 'of 21 and 22. 

24. Tests for silver, lead, and bismuth in unknown mix- 

tures of 21, 22 and 23. 

25. Tests for mercury and arsenic in unknown mix- 

tures of 21, 22, 23 and 24. 

26. Preparation and study of chlorine gas. 

27. Weight of a litre of chlorine. 

28. Combustion of chlorine in hydrogen 

29. Preparation of hydrochloric acid and study of 

properties. 

30. Decomposition of hydrochloric acid gas by sodium 

amalgam, and conclusion as to percentage. 
Avogadro's law. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 75 

31. Preparation and study of at least three chlorides. 

32. Preparation and study of bromine. 

33. Preparation of at least three bromides. 

34. Preparation and study of iodine. 

35. Preparation of at least three iodides. 

36. Comparative study of the chemism of chlorine, 

bromine, and iodine by mutual displacement. 

37. Study of hydrofluoric acid and fluorides. 

38. Determination of the combining proportions of 

chlorine and zinc and the atomic weight of zinc. 

39. Atomic weight of zinc from specific heat, law of 

Dulong and Petit. 

40. Atomic weight of silver by displacement of zinc. 

41. Study of forms of sulphur 

42. Direct formation of sulphides. 

43. Study of sulphurous oxide. 

44. Preparation of sulphurous and sulphuric acids. 

45. Preparation of at least two sulphites and two cor- 

responding sulphates. Comparative study of 
these. 

46. Decomposition of ammonium nitrate and study of 

nitrous oxide. 

47. Determination of the composition of nitrous oxide. 

Gay-Lussac's law. 

48. Preparation of three nitrates in three different 

ways. 

49. Composition of gas formed by action of cold dilute 
nitric acid on copper. 

Composition of gas formed by union of nitric ox- 
ide and oxygen. 

51. Preparation of chromic anhydride, chromic acid, 

and potassium chromate. 

52. Changing potassium chromate to potassium bichro- 

mate and back again. Oxidation and reduction 
in solutions. 

53. Chromium as an acid-forming and as a base-form- 

ing element. Preparation of chromium sulphate. 



50 



76 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

54. Preparation of ferrous and ferric salts. 
Carbon and Some Carbon Compounds: 

55. Product of burning charcoal. Tests. 

56. Test for presence of carbon in wood, paper, kero- 

sene, coal gas, alcohol. 

57. Preparation of three carbonates. 

58. Solubility of carbonates in the presence of carbon 

dioxide. 

59. Effect of heat on suspension of carbonates in so- 

lution. 

60. Carbon dioxide from fermentation. . 

61. Alcohol from fermentation. 

62. Preparation of ether by alcohol and sulphuric acid. 

63. Preparation of alkaline salts of fatty acids, or soap 

making. 

EQUIPMENT. 

Every laboratory should be provided with water, with 
gas if possible, and if not, a gasolene blast lamp and suffi- 
cient alcohol lamps ; a table for every two students, and at 
least one good well-ventilated hood. Tables should con- 
tain lockers, and racks for bottles and apparatus when 
in use. 

Tables can be built by any carpenter, at low' cost, which 
are excellent for performing all the work ' necessary for 
physics or chemistry. Iron sinks, arranged tandem, with 
tables on each side, closets beneath, and shelves on racks 
above, answer admirably the purpose. In this way one 
sink serves for four pupils. 

The list of apparatus is sufficient for a class of twelve, 
working two at one table upon the same experiment. The 
individual method is understood to be used except in the 
experiments requiring more expensive apparatus where 
the apparatus may then be used in rotation. 

All articles marked with a star are included in the 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 77 

physics list and need not be duplicated if that list is owned. 
Column A contains the number of articles needed, irre- 
spective of the size of the class. Column B is based upon 
the minimum needs of twelve students. For classes larger 
or smaller than twelve reduce column B proportion- 
ately. 

The entire cost of the apparatus exclusive of duplicates, 
previously provided for in physics, will be about $60. 
Add to this about $25 for the chemicals necessary for one 
year, and the total, $85, represents approximately the 
cost for a minimum outfit in chemistry for a class of twelve. 
A much larger equipment is desirable, and can be gradually 
obtained without much expense, by purchasing a few good 
and necessary pieces of apparatus each year. 

No. Article. A. B. 

1. Alcohol lamps 6 

2. Asbestos squares 6 

3. Aspirators 6 

4. Barometer* 1 

5. Balance* 1 

6. Balances, hand, with weights* 4 

7. Blow pipes, brass 6 

8. Burettes 6 

9. Beakers, glass 12 

10. Borer, cork, set 1 

11. Condenser 1 

12. Corks, assorted 36 

13. Corks, rubber, 2-hole 12 

14. Corks, rubber, 1-hole 12 

15. Crucibles, sand 12 

16. Crucibles, porcelain 12 

17. Clamps, Hoffman 6 

18. Dishes, evaporating, porcelain, 3-in ... 6 

19. Droppers, glass . '. 6 

20. Eudiometer 1 

21. Filter paper, quire 6-in 1 



ib SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

No. Article. A. B. 

22. Funnels, 3-in 6 

23. File, round 1 

24. File, 3-cornered 1 

25. Flasks, Erlenmeyer, 4 oz 6 

26. Flasks, side neck, 4-oz 6 

27. Forceps, iron 6 

28. Fruit jars, pint 12 

29. Glass tubing, assorted 1 lb. 

30. Glass cutter 1 

31. Graduates 6 

32. Hoffman's apparatus 1 

33. Hygrometer 1 

34. Ignition tubes 12 

35. Liter bottle, thin glass for exhaustion . . 6 

36. Mortar, iron 1 

37. Mortar, porcelain 2 

38. Ring stands, 3 rings 6 

39. Retort glass, stoppered 1 

40. Test tubes, 6-in 144 

41. Test tubes, 8-in 12 

42. Test tube cleaners 6 

43. Thermometers, glass 6 

44. Tubing, rubber, 3-16 in. medium .... 12 ft. 

45. Test paper, litmus, quire 1 

46. Tray, lead, 2-in ' 6 

LECTURE TABLE DEMONSTRATION. 

The preliminary lecture work may well be confined to 
those experiments which are to be done in the laboratory, 
giving a general description of the method to be used, the 
object to be attained, and the precautions which must be 
observed to insure safety and obtain good results. 

The later lectures and demonstrations can be used ap- 
propriately in amplifying the work done in the laboratory 
by parallel but different experiments; in explaining more 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 



79 



in detail the principles involved after the class has thought 
out the main points in regard to them; and in doing any 
of the experiments tor which there is not sufficient time 
in the laboratory. 

Xote. A fuller discussion of this subject as well as of 
the questions to be asked a pupil and line of thought to be 
developed by these questions, may be found in Professor 
Richards' '*' Requirements in Chemistry for Harvard," 
Second Edition, q. v. 

Subject-matter for demonstration may be found in al- 
most any advanced chemistry, but care should always be 
taken to select that which illustrates and teaches, rather 
than that which only amuses and delights. 

REFEREXCE BOOKS IX CHE1IISTRV. 



Author. Title. Publisher. 

Benedict. Chemical Lecture Experiments. Macinillan. 

Dubbin & 

Walker, Chemical Theory for Beginners. Macmillan. 

Hollernian. Text-Book of Inorganic Chemis- 
try. Wiley. 

Lussar-Cohn, Chemistry of Daily Life. Lippincot. 

Myer, E._, History of Chemistry. Macnrillan. 

Muir. Heroes of Science. Chemists. Young & Co. 

Xewth. Chemical Lecture Experiments. Longmans. 

Ostwald, Scientific Foundations of Ana- 

lytical Chemistry. Macmillan. 

Ostwald. Manual of Physico-Chemical 

Measurement.-. Macmillan. 

Ostwald. Principles of Inorganic Chemis- 

try. Macmillan. 

Ramsay. Experimental Proofs of Chemi- 

cal Theory for Beginners, Macmillan. 

Ramsay, Modern Chemistry (Parts I and 

II). Macmillan. 



80 



SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 



Author. 



Title. 



Publisher. 



Smith & 






Hall, 


Teaching of Chemistry and 






Physics, 


Longmans. 


Thorpe, 


Essays on Historical Chemis- 






try, 


Macmillan. 


Thorpe, 


Outlines of Industrial Chemis- 






try, 


Macmillan. 


Van't Hoff, 


Physical Chemistry in the Ser- 






vice of the Sciences, 


University of 
Chicago 
Press. 


Walker, 


Introduction to Physical Chem- 






istry, 


Macmillan. 


Hoffmann, 


Lectures on Modern Chemis- 





try, 1865, 
Farrady, Chemical History of a Candle. 

See also the following Scientific American Supplements 
for articles upon the following : 

889. Chemical analysis for beginners. 

957. Quantitative work for students. 

290. Manipulation of apparatus. Also 780. 

493. Wire apparatus for laboratory use. Very valuable. 

928. Condension apparatus. 

962. Chemical laboratories. 

950. Recreational experiments on the crystallization of 

sulphate of soda. 

957. Stereo-Chemistry. 

112. Thermo-Chemistry. 

Also special articles on gas, analysis, spectroscopy, 
printing, dyeing, coal products, explosives, fireworks, foods, 
etc. 



CHAPTER XI. 

BIOLOGY. 

It is assumed that most schools will keep biology in the 
first year continuous with nature study and human physi- 
ology in the elementary school and the culmination of the 
study of animate nature. As such it is an elementary 
scientific study of animal and vegetable life. It is 
particularly pointed out that the teacher alone can avoid 
the mistake of shaping these courses on lines which are 
collegiate or university rather than secondary; the avoid- 
ance rests on his good sense rather than upon any formal 
shaping of courses. 

ZOOLOGY. 

Study of animal life based upon text-books with the 
equivalent of fifty periods in the laboratory. 

Each teacher will doubtless prefer to work out his own 
plan for the course ; and circumstances, such as the location 
of the school and the amount of money available for the 
purchase of supplies, must largely govern the details of 
such a plan ; but the following scheme is suggested as a 
convenient, and standard practicable arrangement of 
topics : 

(1) A general survey of the anatomy and physiology 
of the human body based upon the pupils' previous studies 
of physiology, and their general knowledge, to review that 
general knowledge, and serve as a foundation for the study 
of other animal bodies. In this the teacher should bring 
out the broad facts concerning the structure and arrange- 
ment of the organs of the body, their uses, and the general 
functions of nutrition, circulation, respiration, locomotion, 
sensation, etc., which they perform. 

(2) The general scheme of classification of the animal 



82 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

kingdom, embracing the relation of its principal divisions, 
to give a preliminary bird's-eye view of the whole, and en- 
able the pupils the better to apprehend the places therein 
of the several forms which they study, when they reach 
them in turn. 

(3) The systematic study of the animal kingdom may 
then be commenced, beginning with the simplest forms. 
One or more type forms of each important class should 
be carefully studied in the laboratory, compared with 
specimens of allied forms, and supplemented by study of 
text-books and references. Careful directions should be 
given by the teacher for all references that are to be 
looked up in other books. This work will occupy about 
two-thirds of the entire time assigned to the course. It 
may be divided as follows : 

Protozoa, 

Sponges and Ccelenterata, 

Echinoderms, 

Vermes, 

Mollusks, 

Arthropods, 

Vertebrates. 

(4) Generalizations may then be made concerning the 
nature and relations of animal forms, their life and their 
habits, under such topics as: the necessary conditions of 
animal life ; the struggle for existence and natural selec- 
tion; adaptations to environment; the chief lines of ad- 
vance; parasitism and degeneration; protective resem- 
blances ; animal communities ; homes and domestic habits ; 
instinct and reason; the geographical distribution of ani- 
mals; the development of the animal kingdom in time, 
etc. 

(5) Final review and summary in the light of these 
generalizations; the theory of evolution, and the relation 
of the human race to the animal kingdom. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 83 

The following reference books for zoology are suggested : 

Jordan, Heath & Kellogg Animals 

Thompson Study of Animal Life 

Weed & Crossman. .Laboratory Guide in Zoology 

Glaus Text-Book in Zoology 

Lang Text-Book of Comparative Anatomy 

Parker & Haswell Text-Book of Zoology 

McMurrich Invertebrate Morphology 

Packard Text-Book of Entomology 

Comstock Manual for the Study of Insects 

Parker Elementary Biology 

Hertwig General Principles of Zoology 

Colton Descriptive and Practical Zoology 

Dodge Elementary Practical Biology 

Apgar Birds of the United States 

BOTANY. 

Study of plant life based upon the text-book with the 
equivalent of fifty laboratory periods. 

The course should include a careful study of the im- 
portant types of the nowerless, as well as of the flowering 
plants; and the student should have practice in determin- 
ing by means of flora and key the species of the flowering 
and higher nowerless plants. There should be much 
drawing of specimens, and in the spring and fall, 
excursions should be made for the study of plants in their 
natural habitat, and the viewing of such plant societies, 
and the observation of such varying conditions of growth, 
with their results, as the locality affords. 

The teacher should work out his own plan for the course, 
or follow that of his text, as in the study of zoology, with 
due regard to existing circumstances, but the following 
scheme is suggested as a convenient, practicable and stand- 
ard arrangement of topics : 

(1) Preliminary study of a complete plant of moderate 
size in flower and one in fruit, to show the parts and or 



84 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

gans, their arrangement, and their uses, and to bring out 
the general functions of nutrition, circulation, reproduc- 
tion, etc., which they perform. 

(2) A general study, in order, of stems, roots, leaves; 
flowers (such as may be available in the fall), fruits, and 
seeds, to bring out the variety of forms and uses of the sev- 
eral parts of the plant. 

(3) A systematic study of the vegetable kingdom, be- 
ginning with the simplest forms, and advancing through 
the several groups. Each group should be introduced by 
the study of a type form, which should afterwards be 
compared with allied forms, and supplemented by the 
study of text-book and references under the careful direc- 
tion of the teacher. 

(4) Generalizations may then be made concerning the 
nature and relations of plant forms, their ]ife and habits, 
under such topics as: 

The necessary conditions of plant life, 

The struggle for existence and natural selection, 

Adaptions to environment, 

The chief lines of progress, 

Germs and their relation to disease, 

Putrefaction, etc., 

Vegetable parasites, 

Plant societies, 

Means of protection, 

Fertilization, 

and the relations of plants and animals (in connec- 
tion with this topic may appropriately be made some 
study of the spring flowers) ; 

Artificial selection, and the development of new varieties 
of flowers and fruits ; 

The geographical distribution of plants, 

The development of the plant kingdom in time, etc. 

(5) Final review and summary in the light of these 
generalizations, the theory of evolution. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 85 

Among the best reference books for the botanical labora- 
tory are the following : 

Gray, Manual of Botany and Botanical Text-book 

Bessey Botany 

Clark. . .Laboratory Manual in Practical Botany 

Setchell 

Laboratory Practice for Beginners in Botany 

Dana How to Know the Wild Flowers 

Apgar Trees of the Northern United States 

Bergen Elements of Botany 

Coulter Plants 

Caldwell Laboratory Manual of Botany 

THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY. 

If possible, a room should be devoted entirely to the pur- 
poses of biological study. If the biological classes must 
share their quarters with those in other subjects, the room 
should be fitted up for the use of the former, and then other 
classes should be assigned to it which do not require facili- 
ties for laboratory work, such as classes in the languages, 
which can recite in the room without interfering in any 
way with the disposition of biological material. The room 
should be well lighted, and should be provided with run- 
ning water and, if possible, with gas taps to which Bunsen 
burners can be affixed. Instead of the usual school desks 
and seats fastened to the floor, there should.be movable in- 
dividual tables and chairs, which can be arranged as con- 
venience may require. 

The tables should have flat tops, two by three feet in 
dimensions, which, for greater ease in keeping clean, should 
be covered with white oilcloth. Each table should be pro- 
vided with a drawer in which the student may keep his note- 
book and apparatus. Such tables enable the students to 
work independently, and without interfering with one an- 
other. 

There should be a good blackboard and wall racks for 



86 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

hanging up diagrams. Many diagrams can be easily made 
by the teacher to supplement the illustrations of the text- 
book. They may be made with ink and a broad-pointed 
marking pen upon heavy manila paper, which is best pur- 
chased in roll form, thirty-six or forty inches wide, and cut 
off as needed. 

Each student should be provided with a dissecting micro- 
scope or a hand lens with a support, and a set of dissecting 
instruments (scalpel, forceps, scissors and needles), of good 
quality, also a large oblong shallow pan, lined with wax or 
paraffin, for dissections. 

The laboratory should possess, if possible, a good com- 
pound microscope, or still better, a stereoptican with micro- 
scope attachment ; but neither is indispensable. In case the 
school owns such equipment, the teacher should be able to 
prepare slides for the same, a collection of which for illus- 
trative purposes should be gradually accumulated. 

So far as possible, the different topics embraced under 
this study should be taken up in systematic order. But the 
material needed for illustrations is often not available at 
those times when it is desirable to study the same. For the 
purpose of rendering such material available when needed, 
the teacher should collect supplies when they are to be had, 
and preserve them for use. Some kinds may be best pre- 
served in alcohol, others by drying, and still other forms 
may be kept alive in aquaria. The laboratory should have 
a considerable number of large glass jars for this purpose. 
Large battery jars are very suitable, or for lack of these, 
large-sized fruit jars may be used. Full directions for the 
collection and culture of such material may be found in 
Weed and Crossman's Laboratory Guide in Zoology. 

Each student should be provided with a laboratory note- 
book with stiff covers and large unruled pages for drawing. 
To supplement the laboratory work a good text-book should 
be used. The laboratory should also have at hand for refer- 
ence such other books relating to the subject of study as can 
be obtained. 

See reference lists above. 



CHAPTER XII. 

MECHANIC ARTS.* 

The Mechanic Arts curriculum in the high school or 
academy is the secondary continuation of manual training 
or sloyd in the elementary school. It does not, however, 
presume the latter as a preliminary discipline. 

Manual training as carried on in the elementary school is 
purely pedagogical. That is, it proposes to educate through 
the training of the hand and its fundamental importance 
in the whole psycho-physical life of the child. It does not 
propose to train for a special purpose in life, nor does it 
contemplate any differentiation among normal children. 
Manual training in the elementary school is as important 
for the child who is to become a professional man, or a 
housekeeper, as for one whose destiny is the trades. 

Mechanic arts in the secondary school is all that manual 
training is and much more. 

(1) It proposes to continue the use of hand work for 
its value in producing mental accuracy and thoroughness. 

(2) It proposes to reveal to the boy of mechanical bent 
his own powers and aptitudes, and to educate him in the di- 
rection of industrial pursuits rather than in the direction of 
commercial life or a profession. In other words, it pro- 
poses to make of him an educated carpenter, or plumber, or 
machinist, rather than to educate him for the law, or medi- 
cine, or commerce, and leave him unprepared for his me- 
chanical vocation. It expects to make of him to some 
extent, a cultivated man, and at the same time, to give him 
a good foundation for his calling. 

* For the several courses in Mechanic Arts, acknowledgment of helpful ser- 
vice is made especially to the following: 
Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, Mass. 
St. Paul Mechanic Arts High School, St. Paul, Minn. 
The California School of Mechanic Arts, San Francisco, Cal. 
Menomonie Public and Stout Manual Training School, Menomonie, Wis. 



88 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

(3) While the curriculum has first in view the boy who 
is unable to go further than the high school, it will also pro- 
vide an excellent preparation for higher scientific and 
technical schools. 

(4) The mechanic arts curriculum contemplates an ad- 
dition to the wealth of the state and nation of a more highly 
educated generation of artificers. 

Because of its comparatively unfamiliar subject-matter, 
this chapter is made somewhat more detailed than it other- 
wise would be. 

Drawing. 

first course. 

Concrete Descriptive and Plane Geometry: Projections 
of single solids, three or more views in third angle. Revolu- 
tion on various axes. Cutting planes and sections. 

Practical geometric problems, — tangents, polygons. 

Developments and Patterns : Problems of single solids. 

Shapes of sections, elbows, etc. 

Constructive Design : Application of principles of de- 
sign in studies of wood carving. 

Building Construction: Framing details of wooden 
house construction, detail of first floor, second floor, attic 
floor and roof. 

Machine Details : Working drawings of tools, or build- 
er 's hardware. 

Expression : Use of instruments, inking, lettering. 

Parallel Course in Representative Drawing : Studies of 
familiar and beautiful objects, groups, house sketches, 
studies of historic architecture and ornament, characteris- 
tics of Egyptian, Assyrian and Greek styles. 

SECOND COURSE. 

Concrete Descriptive and Plane Geometry : Projections 
of intersecting right solids, views in third angle. Revolu- 



PROGRAM OP STUDIES. 89 

tion on axes. Planes and sections. Practical geometric 
problems. Applications to building construction, arches, 
windows, and decoration of surface. Applications to ma- 
chine design, ellipse, oval, helix, and spiral. 

Developments and Patterns: Problems of warped and 
special surfaces. 

Constructive Design: Application of principles of de- 
sign in studies for goblets, balustrades, vase forms, etc. 
Studies for wrought iron design, grilles, gates, andirons, 
fire sets, etc. 

Building Construction : Details of wooden, brick, or 
stone house construction. Doors, windows, foundations 
and chimneys. 

Machine Details : Bolts, nuts, and screw threads. Pul- 
leys. 

Expression : Line shading. Conventions. Tinting. 
Isometric representation. 

Parallel Course in Representative Drawing : Studies 
of familiar and beautiful objects. Groups. Home sketches. 
Drawing from casts. Perspective problems, furniture, in- 
teriors, etc. Studies of historic architecture and ornament. 
Characteristics of Roman, Byzantine, and Saracenic styles. 

THIRD COURSE. 

Concrete Descriptive and Plane Geometry : Projections 
of single and intersecting right solids in third and first 
angle. Projection of shadows. Practical geometric problems. 
Applications to machine design ; cycloid, epicycloid, hypocy- 
cloid, and involute. 

Developments and Patterns: Problems of surfaces and 
the making of patterns to fit special conditions. 

Constructive Design: Application of principles of de- 
sign in studies for castings, panels, reliefs, fire-backs, etc. 

Building Construction: Plans and elevations of a two- 
story wooden dwelling-house. 

Machine Details : Gearing. Cranks. Eccentrics. Cams. 



90 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Selected details of machines; lathes, upright engine, 
dynamo, etc. 

Expression : Tracing. Blue-prints. 

Parallel Course in Representative Drawing: Studies of 
groups. Home sketches. Drawing from casts. Memory 
and imaginative drawing. Perspective problems. Studies 
of historic architecture and ornament. Characteristics of 
Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance and modern styles. 

FOURTH COURSE. 

Concrete Descriptive and Plane Geometry : Projections 
of single and intersecting solids, both right and oblique, in 
third and first angles. Projections of shadows. Advanced 
geometric problems. 

Developments and Patterns: Special problems in sur- 
face development. 

Constructive Design: Application of principles of de- 
sign in studies for relief, in stone or terra-cotta. 

Building Construction : Plumbing and drainage details. 
Heating and lighting problems. 

Machine Details: Complete details and assembly draw- 
ings from measurements from a lathe, upright drill, 
sharper, upright engine, dynamo, etc. 

Expression : Tracings. Blue-prints. Filing, labeling, 
and checking systems. 

Parallel Course in Representative Drawing: Advanced 
study. Groups, still life. Advanced cast drawing. Per- 
spective problems. Studies of historic architecture and 
ornament. The Renaissance. Comparison of historic 
styles. 

Carpentry and Wood-Carving. 

1. Measuring and lining exercises. 

(a) On a rough board with a two-foot rule and pen- 
cil ; chalk line, try-square and pencil ; bevel and 
pencil. 



PROGEAM OF STUDIES. 91 

(b) On a smooth piece with a marking guage; try- 
square and knife ; and with bevel and knife. 

(c) On a smooth piece with compasses, straight 
edge and knife; making a protractor with 15 de- 
gree divisions. 

2. Sawing exercises, preparation of stock for models. 

(a) Rip and cross-cut sawing to pencil lines; rough 
board resting horizontally on trestles. 

(b) Rip sawing in adze lines, pieces held upright 
in vise. 

(c) Buck sawing, square ends and sides of grooves, 
the pieces resting on bench hooks. 

(d) Sawing kerbs in mitre box. 

(e) Curve sawing with hand turning saw and power 
jig-saw. 

3. Sharpening exercises. 

(a) Straight and curved edge tools on grind-stone. 

(b) Sharpening or beveling 6 x 2 x y s inch, white 
holly on prepared sandpaper block. 

(c) Whetting straight and curved edge tools on oil 
stones. 

Applications: plane-iron, chisel, gauge, carving tools, 
cabinet scraper. 

4. Planing exercises. 

(a) Making plane surfaces. Jointing edges and 
planing to gauge lines. 

(b) Block-planing square ends with pieces held in 
vise. 

(c) Oblique edge and end planing. 

(d) Rabbeting, beading, molding. 
Applications : square prism, octagonal prism, hexagonal 

prism, winding sticks, picture frames, typical joints. 

5. Nailing Exercises. 

(a) Nailing square joints, using cut and wire nails. 

(b) Toe nailing. 

(c) Nailing mitre joints. 



92 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Applications : nail box, screw box, bracket, picture frame, 
splice joint. 

6. Boring Exercises. 

(a) Perpendicular boring with augur bits across 
the grain entirely through. 

(b) Perpendicular boring to a given depth, both 
across and with the grain. 

(c) Boring with awls, drills and countersinks. 

7. Chiseling Exercises. 

(a) Sides and bottoms of grooves across and in 
the direction of the grain. 

(b) Oblique surfaces. 

(c) Inside of boxes. 

(d) Curved surfaces. 

Applications : sliding gauge, mortice and tenons, dove- 
tail, oil stone box, glove box, octagonal tooth handles. 

8. Glueing Exercises. 

(a) Rubbed joints. 

(b) Clamped joints. 

(c) Doweled and keyed joints. 

Applications : winding sticks, T squares, drawing 
boards, picture frames, hopper joints. 

9. Form work. 

(a) Plotting curves from straight lines on plane 
surface free-hand. 

(b) Plotting curves on curved surfaces. 

Applications : coat hanger, bread trencher, hammer 
handle, octagonal tool-handles. 

10. Wood-carving exercises. 

(a) Flat and oblique surfaces cut with firmer and 
skew chisels. 

(b) Beads and rosettes cut with firmer and skew 
chisels. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 93 

(c) Cutting straight and curved lines with veining 
and parting tool. 

(d) Fluting and beading with gouges. 

(e) Geometric designs cut in low relief on flat 
surfaces. 

Conventional designs cut in high relief on both 
plane and curved surfaces. 

Applications: pencil tray, book rack, picture frames, 
stamp box, jewel case, music rack, flower-pot stands. 

11. Elementary pattern-making. 

(a) Description and use of simple moulder's flask. 

(b) Names and uses of moulder's tools. 

(c) Characteristics of patterns; shrinkage, draft, 
and finish. 

(d) Finishing of patterns, 

Applications : awning hinge, angle and machine wrench, 
double-end S wrench, straight and bevel boat chocks, cleat, 
oiler, shelf, boat hook, parts of machines. 

Wood-Turning and Pattern-Making. 

i. wood-turning. 

Each of the four exercises illustrates a fundamental 
operation. The useful models, begun as applications of 
the first exercise, are finished as applications of subsequent 
exercises. 

Exercises. 

1. Cylindrical and plane surfaces. 

2. Conical surfaces. 

3. Convex curved surfaces. 

4. Concave curved surfaces. 

Applications: turning between centres, file handles, 
carving mallet, chalk line reel, and awl handle, stocking 
ball, and needle box. 

Chuck turning, napkin ring, powder box, goblet. 



94 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Supplementary work. 

Bench stops, tool handles, mallets, rolling pin, oil-spoon 
handle, glove ball, gavel, dumb bells, Indian clubs, candle 
stick, stool, towel rings, boxes, match safe, napkin rings, 
cups and goblets, spheres, vase forms, mirror frame. 

II. PATTERN- MAKING. 

Quarter bend pipe and core box, and pulley : hanger and 
hanger yoke ; or hollow chuck and core box, and stand for 
lathe rest and core box. 

Supplementary work. 

Gear blanks, paper weight, blank for taper socket, col- 
lars, face plate, hanger box, screw chuck, tool rest, hand 
wheel, eccentric, eccentric strap, block for turning eccen- 
tric, loose pulley for sensitive drill. 

Forging. 

Continuous practice in forging difficult machine parts, 
such as engine shafts, connecting rods, and other parts ; 
accessories for hoists, cranes, etc. ; forge tools, lathe tools, 
carriage and wagon parts, etc. Also, structural and 
ornamental ironwork, and sundry selected jobs covering 
the entire field of forging. 

1. Description and operation of forge and care of fire. 

2. Names, characteristics, and use of tools. 

3. Typical processes : drawing, shouldering, forming, 

bending, upsetting, twisting, scarfing, welding, 
punching, hardening, tempering. 

4. Sources and properties of materials : common iron, 

Norway iron, Bessemer steel, open-hearth steel and 
crucible steel. 

5. Applications : butt ring, hook and staple, bolt, nut, 

timber hanger, bracket, eye bolt and ring, chain, 
and hook, tongs, centre punch, cold chisel, cape 
chisel, spring, lathe tools, square reamer. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 95 

Supplementary instruction. 

Estimates, contracts, and specifications. 
Properties, sources, and prices of materials used. 
Metallurgy of iron ; production of steel ; manufacture of 
rolled steel shapes, and their uses. 

Saturday excursions to ironworking establishments. 

Machine-Shop Practice. 

Machine-shop practice in all its details requiring work 
at the vise and including use of lathe, planer, shaper, mill- 
ing machine, drill press, etc. 

1. Chipping and filing of plane surfaces, cast iron. 

(a) Use of measuring and marking tools. 

(b) Chipping narrow surfaces with flat chisel. 

(c) Chipping broad surfaces with cape and flat 
chisels. 

(d) Filing flat surfaces and testing straight 
edge. 

2. Drilling cast iron finished model. 

(a) Accurate location of holes. 

(b) Form and action of flat drill. 

3. Filing and fitting : a sliding fit — cast iron. 

(a) Filing plane surfaces at rough angles, test- 
ing with try-square. 

(b) Production of parallel surfaces, testing with 
calipers. 

(c) Fitting piece to slide in groove of fixed dimen- 
sions. 

.(d) Chamfering. 

(e) Draw-fitting and polishing, with an emery 
cloth. 



96 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

4. Filing and fitting : a dove-tailed fit — wrought iron. 

(a) Filing blanks to required dimensions. 

(b) Roughing mortise by drilling and hack-saw- 
ing. 

(c) Fitting parts to drive together. 

5. Ring bolt and square head bolt — wrought iron. 

(a) Tapping nuts. 

(b) Threading nuts, adjustable and solid dies. 

6. Machinist's clamp — machinery steel. 

(a) Filing, drilling, and tapping steel. 

(b) Hand turning in steel. 

(c) Threading with die at the lathe. 

7. Surface plate — cast iron, brass handles. 

(a) Planing, roughing and smoothing cuts. 

(b) Drilling and tapping. 

(c) Hand turning in brass. 

(d) Use of die. 

(e) Scraping. 

8. Paper weight — composition metal. 

(a) Use of hand turret and slide rest. 

(b) Hand turning. 

(c) Polishing and lacquering. 

9. A set of lathe tools — shaping faces that form a cutting 

edge. 

10. Perfect cylinder — cast iron. 

(a) Centering. 

(b) True live centre. 

(c) Alignment of dead centre; geometrical rela- 
tion of the axis of revolution to the tool path. 

(d) Squaring ends. 

(e) Turning: use of automatic feed. 

11. Nut mandrel — machinery steel. 

(a) Turning and finishing steel. 

(b) Screw-cutting in the lathe. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 97 

12. Finished hexagon head bolt and nut— wrought iron. 

(a) Facing a nut. 

(b) Turning, ream fit. 

(e) Screw cutting, stopping the thread. 

(d) Milling nuts. 

(e) Milling bolt-head with straddle mills. 

13. Plate center— cast iron, steel shank. 

(a) Chucking a hole in a solid casting; use of 
chuck-drill and reamers. 

(b) Turning on a mandrel. 

(c) Taper-turning. 

(d) Drive fit. 

14. Wrist pin — cast iron. 

(a) Chucking a cored hole: use of chucking and 
hand-reamers. 

(b) Turning and fitting mandrel, and use of same. 

(c) Centering pin at right angles to sleeve. 

(d) Turning pin with head and shoulder. 

15. Hollow chuck — cast iron. 

(a) Inside threading, finishing with tap in the 
lathe. 

(b) Boring and turning on stub mandrel. 

(c) Finishing with hand tools and polishing. 

16. Engine crank, shaft and pin — cast iron and steel. 

(a) Boring on face plate. 

(b) Turning shaft — drive fit. 

(c) Turning pin — shrink fit. 

(d) Planing key-ways. 

(e) Fitting key. 

Supplementary Exercises. Pins for planer table, with. 
and without screws, lathe centres, machine handles, cali- 
pers, hammers, binding-posts, brass ornaments, skate run- 
ners, bolts, tool-post screws, sleeves, plain and threaded 



98 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

collars, and other simple machine parts. These pieces 
may call also for work upon the planer, shaper, milling 
machine, or grinding machine. 

17. Advanced work. 

The models of the latter part of the course, varying con- 
siderably from year to year, consist of more difficult sin- 
gle pieces, small tools, and simple machines., or portions of 
machines, including closely related parts which one pupil 
makes and assembles. Examples : drill sockets, gears, man- 
drels, reamers, counterbores, taps, milling cutters, eccen- 
tric and straps, parts of a hand lathe, engine, dynamo, 

drill press, or other machine. 

/ 

Equipment. 

The equipment of a school with machines, tools, and 
materials sufficient to give satisfactory courses in Mechanic 
Arts will naturally vary with the location of the school, its 
size, special purpose, and the money at its disposal. 

Every school, however, should be provided with plenty 
of raw material, including lumber dressed and undressed, 
hard and soft, sawed in suitable dimensions ; iron, steel, 
sand ; tools for carpentry, woodworking, moulding, forging, 
machinery necessary for machine shop practice in wood 
and metal; work benches, draughting tables, forges and 
some suitable source of power, preferably electric. 

Cost. 

The expense of equipping a Mechanic Arts curriculum 
seems considerable when compared with other curricula, 
since it requires not only the books, laboratories and sup- 
plies of the academic school, but a large amount of extra 
machinery and special tools. 

The expense is materially lessened if, as will usually 
be the case, the classes of the technical curriculum can be 
combined with those of the academic department, and use 
the same books, laboratories, and supplies. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 99 

If a school has a fund or appropriation sufficient for its 
needs, it is perhaps advisable to purchase all its equipment 
at one time, otherwise the burden may be very materially 
relieved by purchasing a smaller number of good machines 
and tools at first, and then requiring others to be made by 
the pupils later. In this way excellent speed and power 
lathes, dynamos, motors, engines and tools of all descrip- 
tion have been obtained at a cost barely exceeding that of 
the raw material. 

The expense can still further be reduced by requiring 
each pupil to pay a fixed charge each term covering the 
cost of raw material used, and to provide himself at his 
own expense with drawing instruments and other tools 
which he uses constantly, and which will be useful to him 
after his school course is finished. 

The expense to the pupil would thus be about as fol- 
lows : 

Raw material (per year) $5.00 to $10.00 

Set of woodworking tools 2.75 

Drawing instruments 5.00 to 7.50 

Note-book for woodwork 35 

Apron and blouse 60 

Good work benches with two vises and a small number 
of tools suitable for wood work can be obtained for about 
$12 each. 

The following suggested outfits can be obtained for the 
price listed at almost any first-class house carrying this 
line of tools. As the price of screw cutting lathes, power 
drills, milling machines, planes, and the like equipment, 
varies greatly according to the kind and amount of attach- 
ments provided, no attempt will be made to outline the 
exact cost nor to indicate the machines best suited for the 
work. Each competent instructor will naturally have his 
preferences, which, if based upon experience and good 
judgment, should generally be consulted before securing 
the more expensive part of the machine working equipment. 



100 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

In general it may be said that a good screw cutting lathe, 
such as the Star, Reed or Barnes, suitable for manual 
training work, will cost from one hundred dollars to two 
hundred dollars, according to size. Seventy-five dollars* 
should purchase the necessary chucks, drills, clogs and turn- 
ing tools. Milling machines with attachments cost from 
three hundred dollars up. Planers, five hundred dollars 
and up. Upright drills, seventy-five dollars. 

CARPENTRY OUTFIT. 

1 Bench 42 in. x 32 in. x 20 in. with two vises and stops, 
1 Hammond nail hammer, 
1 Stanley block plane, 

1 Buck Bros, chisel 14 iu. handled and sharpened, 
1 Buck Bros, chisel % in. handled and sharpened, 
1 Buck saw 10 in., 
1 Jenning's dowel bit, % in., 
1 Gimlet bit, 3-16 in., 
1 Barber nickled bit brace, 8 in., 
1 Try square, 
1 Buck marking gauge, 
1 Screw driver, 4 in., 
1 Knurled nail set, 
1 Round hickory mallet, 
1 Box wood rule, 24 in., 
1 India oil stone, 
.1 Sloyd knife, 
1 Maple bench hook, 
1 Bench duster. 
Price, $13. 

BENCH MACHINIST'S OUTFIT. 

1 Bull dog vise, 

1 Machinists' pein hammer, 

1 Sawyer's combination square and centre head, 9 in.. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 101 

1 Starrett's hack saw frame and blade, 
1 Pair B. & S. spring dividers, 4 in., 
1 Pair B. & S. outside calipers, 6 in., 
1 Pair B. & S. inside calipers, 4 in., 
1 Steel rule, 6 in., 
1 Marking awl, 
1 Knurled prick punch, 
1 Knurled centre punch, %in., 
1 Cold chisel, % in., 
1 Cape chisel, %in., 
1 Handled flat bastard file, 10 in., 
1 Half round second cut file, 10 in.. 
1 Hand second cut file, 10 in., 
1 Half round smooth file, 10 in., 
1 Round second cut file, 6 in. 
Price, $10. 

blacksmith's outfit. 

1 Champion agricultural lever forge, 
1 Hay-Budden anvil, 70 lb.. 
1 Fire set, 

1 Pair straight lipped tongs, 
1 Pair pick-up tongs, 
1 Hardy to fit anvil, 
1 Bottom fuller, %in., 
1 Bottom swedge, % in., 
1 Flatter, handled, 2 in., 
1 Top fuller, handled, % in., 
1 Swedge, handled, %in., 
1 Plumb engineer's hammer, 
1 Ball pein machinist's hammer, 
1 Handled flat bastard file, 10 in., 
1 Boxwood rule, 24 in. 
Price, $20. 

wood turner's outfit. 

1 Crown hand speed lathe with countershaft, chuck, cup, 
and spur centres, 



102 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

1 Buck Bros, handled and sharpened turning chisel, 14 in., 
1 Buck Bros, handled and sharpened turning chisel, %in., 
1 Buck Bros, handled and sharpened turning chisel, % in., 
1 Buck Bros, handled and sharpened turning gauge, y± in., 
1 Buck Bros, handled and sharpened turning gauge, y 2 in., 
1 Buck Bros, handled parting tool, % in., 
1 Boxwood rule, 24 in., 
1 Handled cabinet file, 10 in., 
1 Winged caliper, 8 in. 
Price, $62. 

DRAUGHTING OUTFIT. 

1 Set drawing instruments, 8 pieces, boxed, 
1 Drawing board, 26 in. x 20 in., 
1 T square, adjustable head, 26 in., 
1 Set triangles, 12 in., 
1 Triangular scale, 12 in., 
1 Flat scale, 12 in., 
1 Protractor, 5 in., 
1 Box thumb tacks, 
1 Bottle India ink. 
Cost, $9. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

AGRICULTURE. 

It is coming to be a generally recognized principle in 
education that those great activities through which the 
race has been enlightened can well be depended upon as a 
means of educating the individual, whenever they can be 
organized for that purpose. Among these activities are 
agriculture, commerce, the mechanic arts, and various 
fundamental industries such as the textile arts and the 
arts of the household. 

A curriculum in agriculture for the secondary school 
contemplates the following purposes : 

(1) It proposes to utilize the science of agriculture as a 
means of general culture, parallel for this purpose with 
physics, chemistry, and the languages. 

(2) It proposes to meet the boy whose previous inter- 
ests have been those of the farm on the ground of those in- 
terests, and interpret them to him as a worthy part of 
higher education. 

(3) It proposes to offer to him a sound educational 
basis for an efficient and worthy life as a husbandman. 

(4) While primarily for the boy who cannot go to col- 
lege, it also will serve as an excellent preparation for ad- 
vanced schools of agriculture. 

(5) It comtemplates an addition to the wealth of the 
state and nation in a more highly trained generation of 
farmers. 

So far as the courses of this curriculum are identical 
with those of other curricula, they will be found at the 
appropriate place above, — for- instance, botany, physics, 
modern languages. It is assumed that the school will 
usually combine courses in this curriculum with those 
in other curricula. Wherever this is unnecessary, on 



104 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

account of a large equipment and faculty, it is suggested 
that the school authorities will usually find it convenient 
and profitable to give biology, physics, chemistry and book- 
keeping somewhat special application to agricultural 
uses. 

Agriculture. 

1. Soils, fertilizers and drainage. 

Classification of soils. Relation of soils to water. Soil 
temperature. Plant food in the soil. Plowing, harrow- 
ing, rolling, planting. Soil fertility as affected by farm 
operations. Biological properties of soil. Chemical prop- 
erties of soils. Farm manures. Source and use of com- 
mercial fertilizers. Object and effect of drainage. Kinds, 
location and size of drains. 

2. Farm crops. 

Relation of crops. Crops as affected by climate. Classi- 
fication of farm crops : Wheat, corn, oats, barley and rye ; 
grasses and clovers ; silage and forage crops ; root crops ; 
sugar plants; fiber crops; miscellaneous crops. History, 
varieties, structure, harvesting and uses. Weeds, dis- 
semination and eradication. 

Texts and references : 

" First Book of Farming," by Goodrich 

Doubleday, Page & Co. 

' ' Three Volumes on Agriculture, ' ' by Brooks .... 
King-Richardson Co. 

' ' Soils and Crops of the Farm, ' ' by Hunt & Mor- 
row Orange Judd Co. 

Comparative Physiology. 

The general structure of the human body, based on the 
work in vertebrate zoology. The physiology of the skele- 
ton, and movement, digestion, respiration, circulation. 
Sources, transformation and use of energy in the body. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 105 

The hygiene of the various organs. Comparison of the 
skeleton, digestive system, and their physiology, etc., with 
those of the domestic animals. 
Text-books : 

For the class room, Martin's Human Body, last edi- 
tion, or an equivalent. 

For the laboratory (the time may well be divided 
equally between class room and laboratory), 
Brown, Physiology for the Laboratory. 
Peabody, Laboratory Exercises in Physiology. 

Horticulture. 

The class may select any one of the following subjects 
(1) Fruit growing (Pomology), (2) Flower growing 
(Floriculture), or (3) Vegetable growing (Olericulture). 

The following books are recommended for text : 

( 1 ) " Lessons in Fruit Growing " Goff 

(2) " Home Floriculture " Rexford 

(3) " Vegetable Gardening " Green 

The course in Botany of the freshman year must precede 
these courses. 

Rural Engineering. 

1. Construction of farm buildings. 

Best sites for buildings. Horse and cattle barns. Sheep 
barns and piggeries. Silos. Poultry houses. Creameries 
and ice houses. Root cellars and granaries. Dwelling 
houses. Size and material. Arrangement of rooms. Win- 
dows and porches. General arrangement of buildings 
with regard to drainage and prevailing winds. Plans and 
drainage with specifications and estimates of cost of differ- 
ent buildings. 

2. Road making and farm mechanics. 

Essentials of a good road. Grades. Solidity. Smooth- 
ness. Impervious to water. Farm roads. Country roads, 



106 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

width, convexity, ditches, waterbreaks, and bridges. Care 
of roads. Improvement of country roads. Materials for 
road building. Dirt, gravel, macadam and Telford roads. 
Farm engines and motors, steam, gasoline, windmills and 
tread powers. Principles of draft, size and speed of pul- 
leys. Lacing belts and splicing ropes. Purpose, use and 
comparison of farm machines. 

Texts and references: 

' ' Barn Plans and Outbuildings " 

By Orange Judcl Co. 

" The Farmstead," by Roberts. . .Macmillan Co. 
' ' Good Roads Magazine " New York 

Rural Economy and Farm Management. 

The farm as a source of income. Value of farm as af- 
fected by surroundings and by its own natural qualities. 
Value of improvements. Rents, leases and tenantry. 
Rural law, property, deeds, mortgages and titles, trespass 
and water rights, highways and roadsides; legal fences. 
Accounts and invoices. Cost and relative profits of dif- 
ferent systems of management. Number, size, shape and 
arrangement of fields. Fences and fencing material. 
Water supply and sewage. Household administration, 
economy and comfort. A study of agricultural statistics 
from census reports. 

Text: " The Farmer's Business Handbook," by Macmil- 
lan Co. 

Animal Husbandry. 

1. Breeds of farm animals. 

The origin, history, characteristics, adaptability and 
management of the different breeds of horses, cattle, sheep 
and swine. A study of the different parts of the animal. 
Judging animals by the use of score cards. The different 



• PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 107 

classes and varieties of poultry. Incubators and brooders. 
The packing and shipping of poultry and eggs. 

2. The feeding of animals. 

The influence of different kinds of food upon the animal 
body. Source and preparation of animal feeds. Diges- 
tion of food and the changes produced. The study of feed- 
ing stuffs and their relative value. Soiling crops. The 
selection and compounding of rations for the different 
classes of farm animals. 

3. Animal breeding. 

A study of the fundamental laws. Heredity and the 
transmission of normal, abnormal and acquired characters. 
Inbreeding, close-breeding, line-breeding, cross-breeding 
and grading. Value of selection and " standards of ex- 
cellence." The influence of environment. The im- 
portance of pedigrees and methods of keeping them. 

4. Veterinary elements and diseases. 

A study of the physiology and anatomy of the horse and 
ox. Principles of horseshoeing. The more common dis- 
eases of farm animals and methods of prevention. Sim- 
ple farm medicines, and their modes of application. Care 
of sick animals. 

Texts and references: 

" Animal Breeding," by Shaw. .Orange Judd Co. 
" The Study of Breeds," by Shaw. 

Orange Judd Co. 

' ' Veterinary Elements, ' ' by Hopkins 

Universal Cooperative Co. 

' ' Diseases of Animals, ' ' by Mcintosh 

Donohue & Henneberry 

" Standard of Perfection," by American Poultry 
Association. 

" Farm Poultry," by Watson Macmillan Co. 

" Feeding of Animals," by Jordan. 



108 secondary schools of new hampshire. 

Equipment. 

The equipment for the agricultural course need not be 
extensive in any case. Beyond the regular equipment for v 
physics, chemistry and biology, little need be bought. 

In case the school owns a considerable tract of land 
near the buildings, as sometimes happens, the school 
should operate it, so far as it can be operated without the 
purchase of expensive machinery and stock. Competent 
and energetic business management of the institution 
which holds some land ought to be able to make the land 
productive enough to pay the expense of operation and 
gradually to stock it. Actual outward work is the life and 
proof of all mental action. The farm itself must be the 
laboratory of the agricultural school. 

In lieu of farm equipment, the instructor must be un- 
wearied in his efforts to keep his students in touch with 
the actual work of the home farms and those of neighbors. 
In many instances the student may utilize a part of the 
home farm for working out his school problems. 

The latter should be real and concrete rather than ab- 
stract and formal. 

The instructor is particularly urged to keep closely in 
touch with the State College at Durham, and with the 
Agricultural Department at Washington. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
/ 

COMMERCE. 

See also introduction to chapters on Mechanic Arts and 
on Agriculture. 

An insight to the organization and forces of the modern 
commercial world is not a less factor in an education 
which proposes to place the individual in efficient relations 
with his present environment than any other part of the 
whole program of studies, or, to put the statement in an- 
other form, such an insight is not less a means of true edu- 
cation than is a curriculum of letters to others or a curric- 
ulum of science to others still. 

The commercial curriculum proposes : 

(1) To meet boys and girls on the ground of their 
past experiences, environment and interests, and to edu- 
cate them in part through a discipline germane to those 
interests. It does not propose to turn out efficient book- 
keepers, and disclaims all intentions to do so. Special vo- 
cational training must come after school in the counting- 
room itself. The school undertakes to lay the foundation 
therefor in an educated youth whose awakened capacities 
are in that direction. 

(2) "While the curriculum has primarily in view those 
who must earn their living after the end of secondary 
education, it expects to prepare for those collegiate institu- 
tions which offer commercial studies in the course for the 
bachelor's degree. 

(3) Sound education through commerce and into com- 
mercial life must add to the forces of the nation a genera- 
tion whose outlook upon commerce is increasingly broader, 
saner, and away from mere commercialism. 

It is assumed that the courses not covered in this chap- 
ter will usually be combined with the same courses in 



110 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

other curricula. Whenever the faculty of a school is 
sufficient, it is suggested that English, foreign language, 
physics and chemistry can profitably be given a somewhat 
special bearing in sections composed entirely of commercial- 
students. 

Bookkeeping. 

The legitimate purpose of the courses in bookkeeping and 
business practice in the secondary school is to teach the 
pupil a competent understanding of the general principles 
of accounts, to give him some insight into the orderly ways 
of business transactions, and to develop in him habits of 
neatness and powers of accuracy. No secondary school 
should pretend to turn out accomplished bookkeepers; 
that may come only in higher institutions or more often 
after apprenticeship in the counting room. 

By business practice is meant the buying and selling of 
representative merchandise by the pupils. Business prac- 
tice bears the same relation to bookkeeping which the 
laboratory bears to that of physics, and no course in book- 
keeping not based on business practice can be approved 
for secondary schools. The best treatises on bookkeeping 
include the business practice. 

The instructor will ordinarily follow the plans laid 
down in an approved textbook. The following outline is, 
however, added to indicate the proper standard for this 
course in the secondary school. 

ELEMENTARY. — FIRST COURSE. 

Study of elementary business transactions and the rela- 
tions of the parties thereto. 

Drills in preparing business papers and forms and in 
interpreting the business transactions which produce them. 

Business correspondence throughout. This phase of the 
work can be given special force and interest if the corre- 
spondence is actually with other schools. 

Record of business transactions from the business pa- 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. Ill 

pers received and issued, with special attention to the 
preparation of balance sheets and statements, ledger clos- 
ing, analysis of accounts, etc. 

Books of account should include cashbook, sales book, 
journal, ledger and trial balance book. 

Incidentally, many of the principles of commercial law 
can be applied and explained in connection with the dis- 
cussion of the various transactions, especially those bearing 
upon notes, acceptances, indorsements, etc. 

ADVANCED. — SECOND COURSE. 

The advanced course will include applications of book- 
keeping and accounting to wholesale, retail, jobbing, com- 
mission, manufacturing and other kinds of business con- 
ducted as partnerships, joint stock companies, or corpora- 
tions, with all the various books of account and rulings 
found in general use in the various special lines suggested. 

Commercial Geography. 

Commercial geography in the secondary school in its 
relations to the geography of the elementary school must 
be conceived in much the same way as commercial arithme- 
tic in its relation to the earlier arithmetic. It will be a 
review but at the same time an advance toward a particu- 
lar view point in the domain of geography. It ought to 
prepare young people to become more efficient business men 
and women, but its main purpose must be understood to be 
the educated business man rather than the man trained for 
immediate commercial productivity. The vocational aim 
sinks to the minimum, the broadly educational aim rises to 
the maximum. 

The legitimate objects of the course may be summarized 
as follows : 

I. A study of the nations of the earth in their com- 
mercial relations, that is to say, their natural resources and 
limitations; their products, both natural and manufac- 



112 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

tured ; the natural trade rivals of each ; and their commer- 
cial and industrial organization, including especially the 
relation of education to prosperity in each. 

II. A more exhaustive study of the United States from 
the same standpoints, including especially the relations of 
the industries and changing trade relations of the nation. 

III. An intensive commercial study of New Hampshire 
and New England as a typical trade and industrial area. 

Commercial geography is one of the subjects which it is 
especially difficult and perhaps impossible to teach well 
from the text-book alone. The following essential aids to 
study are named: 

(1) A working set of specimens of the principal com- 
mercial staples and products, in sizes and form suited to 
handling in class : This should be kept up to date. 

(2) A museum of commercial products, including finer 
specimens for exhibiting purposes. 

(3) Maps, charts, atlases, globes, etc. (Imperative.) 

(4) A library of reference books in commerce and in 
subjects immediately related thereto. 

(5) A constant supply of consular reports and other 
government publications concerning our commercial rela- 
tions. 

(6) Selected theses written by pupils, reserved for use 
of subsequent classes. 

(7) Visits of inspection to stores, factories, etc. 

(8) Lectures and talks by local business men. 

Commercial Arithmetic. 

Commercial arithmetic in the secondary school should 
not be conceived as merely a review of arithmetic taught 
in the elementary school. It is that and something more. 
The essential difference is this : elementary arithmetic 
covers only the ground which every intelligent person must 
have covered and which is also essential as preparation for 
the various mathematical and scientific courses in the 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. J 13 

secondary school; commercial arithmetic in the upper 
school reduces this knowledge to an effective, special tool 

It needs also to be remembered that neither this course 
nor any other, can become thoroughly efficient except it be 
conceived as a process of general mental development as 
well as a special purpose course. 

Attention is especially called to the following passages 
quoted from the report of the committee of nine to the de- 
partment of business education, National Education Asso- 
ciation : ' 

" Though business grows steadily more complex, details 
of organization, and methods of work tend steadily towards 
simplicity. This tendency results in increased * demands 
for accuracy in fundamental processes and for a working 
knowledge of the principles of percentage as well as of 
elementary business principles, with ability to apply them 
in an increasing number of ways. The study of modern 
business at close range discloses much that is suggestive 
to the teacher of commercial arithmetic and that must af- 
fect his presentation of the subject. Among these ten- 
dencies or conditions which are specially in evidence are 
the following: 

"1. The decreasing use of common fractions ; those with 
denominators of two, three, four, six and eight, alone find- 
ing extended use. For others, the nearest two-place deci- 
mal is the usual substitute ; 

" 2. That text-book expressions of • quantities in many 
denominations are not common in actual business. The 
merchant sells 1% yds., not 1 yd. 2 ft. 3 in. ; the grocer iy 2 
lbs., not 1 lb. 8 oz. ; the engineer measures in feet and hun- 
dredths of feet, not in feet, yards and rods ; 

' ' 3. That the majority of business expressions of quan- 
tity and value are exceedingly simple, numerically. It 
follows that ability to work mentally . should be cultivated 
even if the volume of modern business did not demand it. 
Time and energy should not be wasted on paper calcula- 
tions, when mental calculation, once a habit, is always 
easier ; 



114 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

" 4. That ' actual business ' takes little recognition of 
text-book case or subject. In a real estate office, a single 
problem may involve simple percentage, taxes, commission, 
insurance, interest. Solutions must rest, not on knowledge , 
of arbitrary subjects, but on the bed-rock of fundamental 
principles ; 

1 ' 5. That frequently ability to see as well as solve actual 
problems is essential. A book says, ' I bought 40 chairs 
at $8.40, less 15 per cent, discount, paying $11 20 freight. 
Terms : 30 days, 2-10. I pay cash. Find the marked price 
to gain 15 per cent. ' A similar problem was expressed in 
these words from dealer to clerk: ' John, we want to 
clear 15 per cent, on this invoice,' handing him a bill. 
And John noted terms, discount, prices, allowed for freight 
and for store burden, and marked his chairs. 

" There is this common distinction between the text- 
book problems and those of actual life : the one class are 
stated in positive terms, with necessary values and quanti- 
ties and no unnecessary ones ; the second class are fre- 
quently not stated, meeting one incidentally in the ordi- 
nary course of the day 's work, or are stated only in general 
terms. Values and quantities must be selected from a 
mass of values and quantities often concealed in books of 
record of tabulated forms. In practical arithmetic work, 
therefore, power of selection must be cultivated ; 

" 6. That calculation tables for interest, discount, in- 
surance, taxes, wages, earthwork, etc., are commonly used 
to save time and insure accuracy. The construction and 
use of labor-saving tables must thus be understood ; 

" 7. That the use of ruled forms, many requiring exten- 
sions and calculations for which text-book courses do not 
prepare, is increasing rapidly. This must be considered 
in outlining the arithmetic work. 

" The material for the work must be selected at first- 
hand with such direct aid as an interested class can give. 
The teacher must consult business men, study the workings 
of stores and shops, find out the problems which clerks 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 115 

have actually had, and read current commercial and finan- 
cial reports. One factory examined from top to bottom, 
or one trade properly investigated, will yield a wealth of 
material for class use worth all the set problems in a 
dozen text-books. ' ' 

Penmanship. 

From the standpoint of vocational education, it may 
be said that a person who is unable to write a neat, legible, 
rapid hand is seriously handicapped in any commercial 
vocation. From the standpoint of generaJ educational 
values, it may be said that the acquired control over the 
muscles involved in good handwriting means heightened 
mental organization, and that, other things being equal, 
the man who writes a good hand is better educated than he 
who does not. 

After proper training in the elementary school, one 
period per week for one year is deemed sufficient for for- 
mal instruction in penmanship. It should be noted, how- 
ever, that good handwriting is a habit and that there- 
fore the pupil in commercial courses especially should be 
required to do his best in every exercise involving hand- 
writing which he submits to any teacher. 

Stenography. 

The teaching of stenography and typewriting in the sec- 
ondary school must be justified, if at all, on the same 
ground as handwriting in the elementary school, namely 
that it is an essential or convenient attainment of every- 
body in the modern world for the conduct of the ordinary 
affairs of life. It cannot be justified as a special or pro- 
fessional study for the few, preparatory to a special occu- 
pation, and that alone. 

No method or system is prescribed. 

At the end of the second year students must be able to 
write accuratelv in shorthand from dictation 500 words in 



116 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

five minutes and transcribe the notes either in long hand or 
with the typewriter in forty-five minutes. 

Office Work for Stenographers. 

This will include instruction in the routine work of the 
office amanuensis, such work as manifolding with carbon, 
mimeograph and neostyle, filing letters, etc.. copying let- 
ters—with press, roller, and carbon. It is expected that 
the school will be able to furnish either through its own 
offices or by other arrangements, practice in actual office 
work for its students. 

Typewriting. 

See also stenography, 

No system of instruction is prescribed. 

The course in typewriting will be carried on simultane- 
ously and in connection with stenography. At the end of 
the second course the student should be able to write t on the 
typewriter ordinary matter at the rate of fifty words a 
minute for three minutes, and to copy unfamiliar printed 
matter at the rate of thirty-five words per minute for three 
minutes. 

History of Commerce. 

A brief survey of broad features of the world's commer- 
cial development. As such, a secondary course in this sub- 
ject will deal with (1) the primary elements of the com- 
mercial strength of each of the great trading nations, (2) 
effect of great movements or institutions like the cru- 
sades or feudalism on commercial development, (3) inter- 
action of commerce and political organization, (4) the 
development of the industrial order from its primitive 
beginnings. (5) the origin, development and influence of 
transportation, (6) a study of the modern industrial and 
commercial world. 

This course is made a semester course followed by a 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 117 

semester of political economy, of which it is the pedago- 
gical foundation. It is pointed out that bright students in- 
tending to elect these courses should be encouraged to elect 
the second year history from another curriculum, if of- 
fered. 

The course cannot properly be given without extensive 
use of collateral reading of manifold description, charts 
and other similar aids. 

Political Economy. 

The consensus of opinion seems to be that political 
economy as a distinct course has no place in the curricula 
long established in the secondary school. That it has es- 
sential place in a thorough-going commercial curriculum 
there can be little doubt. 

For this course, for which one semester is deemed suf- 
ficient, a modern treatise will be provided and the in- 
structor will, of course, follow in the main the lines laid 
down in his text. The following points should be noted: 

I. That this course will be in a large measure an or- 
ganization of knowledge acquired in other courses, both 
elementary and secondary, notably geography, history, 
civics, and business practice. 

II. That it is therefore desirable that the principles 
taught should stand out with great clarity before the 
pupil's mind, unencumbered with a mass of illustrative de- 
tail. 

III. That nevertheless each principle taught should be 
focalized and clinched by illustrative praxis. 

IV. That under no circumstances should the course be 
allowed to reach out into the domain of unsettled economic 
principles and especially should it be kept out of present 
political disagreement and dogmatizing. 

The course may properly include an elementary study 
of such economic terms as wealth, land, rent, capital, in- 
terest, labor, wages, etc., as well as the economic princi- 



118 SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

pies underlying, and the economic laws governing the 
trade of nations, their industrial organization, their cur- 
renc3 r and banking systems. 

Commercial Law. 

The study of commercial law is important. 

(1) As a means to a better understanding of the or- 
ganization of commerce. Commerce rests, in fact, upon 
that great body of principles of agreement and confidence 
between men, known as the law merchant. 

(2) As information concerning certain general princi- 
ples of law which every business man ought to know, and 
not the less to teach the pupil those limits beyond which 
the prudent business man should never venture without 
professional legal advice. 

The teacher will ordinarily use a text which will indicate 
the scope of instruction. The following outline indicates 
the scope of work which an approved school will cover. 

Contracts, bills and notes, agency, partnership, cor- 
porations, real property, mortgages, surety and guaranty- 
ship, bailments, common carrier, fire insurance, landlord 
and tenant. 

The text-book is necessarily the basis of the work, but 
strict confinement to the text is not likely to produce an 
understanding of the subject. Most recent texts are sup- 
plied with abundant problems in the shape of " cases." If 
the instructor has no such text, he should collect a supply 
of such " cases " for class study and praxis. 

Advanced Commercial Arithmetic. 

The advanced arithmetic for the fourth year should be 
the summing up in mathematical terms of all the technical 
courses. It should not only sum up what has been taught 
and give a knowledge also of higher business calculations, 
but it should correlate the mathematics with all other tech- 
nical branches of the curriculum and should establish the 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES- 119 

rank of arithmetic as an interpreter of business conditions, 
and of applied arithmetic as a most necessary tool of higher 
finance. It should call into action all the mind power of 
pupils strengthened by three years of hard work, mature 
and trained in the exercise of reason and judgment, and 
should put before them problems which shall broaden their 
outlook and help to make them men of affairs. 

Such a course may well begin with a review of the ear- 
lier field of first year commercial arithmetic. In many cases 
it may advantageously be combined with the advanced 
mathematics or review mathematics of other curricula. 

The body of the course should follow one of two general 
lines. 

1. It may consist of a study of the mathematical prob- 
lems of a great business, department by department. 
For example : the mathematical problems of finance, in- 
volving floating of loans, issuing of stocks, etc., necessary 
for the establishment of a large manufactory ; the study of 
estimates for cost and materials for the manufacturing 
plant ; the mathematical problems of power and other 
questions relating to the installation of machinery; the 
problems of the treasurer, in routine business, loans, dis- 
counts, pay rolls ; a study of cost-keeping, the greatest of 
all problems in manufacturing: mathematical problems 
relating to freight rates, shipments, packing; the cost of 
marketing, advertising, etc. 

2. In place of the study of a single great business, 
great questions common to most kinds of business may be 
studied in a general way from the mathematical viewpoint. 
Here single topics suggest themselves, as : advertising, cost- 
keeping, financing, transportation, annuities, insurance, 
statistics, general estimates, working tables and their 
proper design. 

In the first case, a new business may be treated each 
year, and this will have throughout the school a broaden- 
ing influence of great value. In the second case, illustra- 
tions and examples may be drawn from different busi- 
nesses. 



120 secondary schools of new hampshire. 

Elements op Banking and Finance. 

This course will properly be a continuation of political 
economy. An adequate study of advanced book-keeping 
and business practice in the second year will be a useful 
preparation. 

The course should not contemplate a special study of 
the organization of banking houses, which would properly 
be a subject for collegiate or other higher institutions. It 
is more properly a study of the economic principles which 
underlie the banking and currencies of the commercial 
world. Its legitimate end and aim is broadly educational 
rather than special. 

The instructor should be able to lay out his own course, 
keeping it within the comprehension of the pupils with 
whom he has to deal. The following outline is suggested, 
as indicating the scope of the work in an accredited sec- 
ondary school : 

The nature and functions of money. 

The principles of coinage. 

The value of money and influences which modify the 
same. 

The principles and working of exchange. 

The currency — metallic and paper. 

The origin and principles of banking credit. 

Various forms of banks, private, state, national. 

Bank-note currency. 

The discount system and its meaning to commerce and 
industry. 

The clearing-house system. 

Negotiable securities. 

At every point in the course where practicable, princi- 
ples taught must be reduced to mathematical illustration 
and numerous problems set for solution. 



program of studies. 121 

Advertising and Study of Trade Journals. 

This course will be substantially a course in what may 
be called technical commercial English. 

There are now so many well recognized principles upon 
which the art of good advertising depends that it may well 
nigh be called a science. At bottom, advertising is little 
more than excellent special expository writing, the art of 
making a possible purchaser understand what you have to 
sell and of persuading him thajt he wants it. 

The course will be almost entirely a practice course, 
made up mainly of the writing, criticism, correction, and 
study of advertisements, circulars, and letters dealing 
with the sale of goods. The ethics of advertising should 
form a motive running through the whole. 

The study of trade journals will practically be a seminar 
parallel with advertising, and a continuation of the earlier 
study of commercial geography and the history of com- 
merce. 

Advertising and the study of trade journals cannot be 
said to have fulfilled its mission in the secondary school 
unless it shall have been so conceived and taught by the 
instructor as to yield a better understanding of commerce 
and thereby a better trained mind. Its purpose must 
not be supposed to be to produce skilled advertisers capable 
of earning at once large salaries as such. 



^/ 



